EC Library Guide on artificial intelligence, algorithms and the risk of discrimination: Selected publications
Selected EU publications
- 2024 report on gender equality in the EU
European Commission, Directorate-General for Justice and Consumers, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.
Gender equality is a core EU value under the Treaties, with the EU Gender Equality Strategy 2020-2025 delivering on the von der Leyen Commission’s commitment to achieving a Union of Equality. The fourth year of the EU’s Gender Equality Strategy, 2023, was another successful year for gender equality in the EU. 2023 was a particularly important year for gender equality in the EU. In May, the Pay Transparency Directive was adopted. It aims to strengthen the principle of equal pay for equal work or work of equal value, through pay transparency measures and enforcement mechanisms. The Directive tackles pay secrecy, making it easier for all workers to find out if their gender was a factor in setting their salary and to defend their right to equal pay in court.
In June, the EU’s accession process to the Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence Against Women and Domestic Violence (commonly known as the Istanbul Convention) was finally concluded. With the accession, the EU is bound by ambitious and comprehensive standards to prevent and combat violence against women and domestic violence in the area of judicial cooperation in criminal matters, asylum and non-refoulement and with regard to its institutions and public administration. In December, the Council of the EU reached a provisional agreement with the European Parliament on a new EU directive to strengthen the independence and powers of the national equality bodies. The directive covers the mandate of equality bodies in the area of gender equality in the area of employment and occupation. Most recently, a political agreement has been reached on the proposal for a directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on combating violence against women and domestic violence. The proposed directive is a milestone - the first comprehensive legal instrument at EU level to tackle violence against women, which is still too pervasive in the European Union. With this directive all victims of violence against women and domestic violence across the European Union will benefit from the same comprehensive set of measures of protection, support and access to justice. The report focuses on the key actions and achievements of EU institutions in this area. It also provides encouraging examples of legislative and policy developments by Member States (indicated in the boxes), and work by EU-funded projects in the above areas.
- Addressing AI risks in the workplace: Workers and algorithms
European Parliament briefing, 2024.
lgorithms and artificial intelligence (AI) are changing the way people live and work. Depending on how AI technologies are used and what purpose they serve, they can drive progress and benefit the whole of society, but they also raise ethical concerns and may cause harm. When introduced to the world of work, their transformative potential runs into complex national and EU rules. Existing labour laws, put in place before AI systems came on the scene, do not appear fit to provide meaningful guiderails. As with any new technologies, tensions arise between two opposing regulatory approaches: strict regulation to safeguard society from potential hazards and minimum regulation to promote the technology's deployment and innovation.
For employers who invest in AI systems, the main motivation is better workplace organisation, increased productivity, and competitiveness. Workers, on the other hand, may fear losing their jobs, and also want to have a say in how AI and algorithms are to become part of their daily lives. Focusing on workplace deployment of AI, this briefing looks at the state of play of algorithmic management in the workplace and some issues relating to the data that algorithms use and generate. It offers an overview of the current top-down EU legislative approach, of insights brought by the European Parliament, and of advances in collective bargaining, demonstrating the potential of a bottom-up approach to complement AI deployment. The briefing looks at the potential use of sleeping clauses in the existing EU legal framework and – taking note of the views of both employers and trade unions – highlights the many open questions that remain.
- Addressing racism in policing
European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.
Racism in the police ranges from discriminatory racial profiling practices to excessive use of force. Repetitive incidents like these highlight the deeper structural issues that need to be uprooted from policing across the EU. Everyone in society is affected by racism in policing, not only the individuals or communities targeted. Lack of trust in policing fuels social exclusion and damages the foundations of a fair and equal society. This is the first EU-wide report on racism in policing. FRA’s findings identify gaps in regulatory frameworks and proposes concrete steps for action.
EU countries should ensure that their police forces comply with anti-racism provisions in EU and international law. Member States should collect data on racist incidents. They should enable whistle-blowers to report misconduct without negative consequences and ensure independent oversight. Police forces should be more diverse to represent the communities they serve. They should receive more guidance to prevent racism in their work. Through this report, FRA supports EU countries to make a decisive effort in tackling racism in policing.
- Adopt AI study – Final study report
European Commission, Directorate-General for Communications Networks, Content and Technology (CNECT), 2024.
A study commissioned by the European Commission highlights the significant potential of Artificial Intelligence (AI) to improve public sector services across the EU. The report emphasizes that AI can enhance citizen-government interactions, boost analytical capabilities, and increase efficiency in key areas such as healthcare, mobility, e-Government, and education. These sectors are identified as among the most ready for large-scale AI deployment, with applications ranging from autonomous vehicles and smart traffic systems to AI-driven healthcare solutions and education technologies.
However, the study also outlines several challenges hindering AI uptake in the public sector. These include complex public procurement processes, difficulties in data management, a lack of regulatory clarity, and concerns about bias in AI decision-making. In response, the report provides a series of policy recommendations aimed at accelerating AI adoption. These include increasing funding and resources for AI in public services, ensuring transparency and accountability in AI systems, promoting cross-border data sharing, and aligning industry and public sector expectations. The European Commission is advised to create a clear regulatory framework for AI, prioritise long-term implementation, and foster human-centric, trustworthy AI solutions. By addressing these challenges, the EU aims to position itself as a global leader in the development of trustworthy and sustainable AI technologies for the public sector.
- Artificial intelligence (AI) and human rights – Using AI as a weapon of repression and its impact on human rights – In-depth analysis
European Parliament, Directorate-General for External Policies of the Union, Ünver, A., Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.
This in-depth analysis (IDA) explores the most prominent actors, cases and techniques of algorithmic authoritarianism together with the legal, regulatory and diplomatic framework related to AI-based biases as well as deliberate misuses. With the world leaning heavily towards digital transformation, AI’s use in policy, economic and social decision-making has introduced alarming trends in repressive and authoritarian agendas. Such misuse grows ever more relevant to the European Parliament, resonating with its commitment to safeguarding human rights in the context of digital trans-formation. By shedding light on global patterns and rapidly developing technologies of algorithmic authoritarianism, this IDA aims to produce a wider understanding of the complex policy, regulatory and diplomatic challenges at the intersection of technology, democracy and human rights.
Insights into AI’s role in bolstering authoritarian tactics offer a foundation for Parliament’s advocacy and policy interventions, underscoring the urgency for a robust international framework to regulate the use of AI, whilst ensuring that technological progress does not weaken fundamental freedoms. Detailed case studies and policy recommendations serve as a strategic resource for Parliament’s initiatives: they highlight the need for vigilance and proactive measures by combining partnerships (technical assistance), industrial thriving (AI Act), influence (regulatory convergence) and strength (sanctions, export controls) to develop strategic policy approaches for countering algorithmic control encroachments.
- Artificial intelligence and algorithms in risk assessment – Addressing bias, discrimination and other legal and ethical issues – A handbook
European Labour Authority, 2023.
This ELA handbook aims to enhance the understanding of bias and related legal, ethical and practical issues that may arise in the development and utilization of algorithms and Artificial Intelligence (AI) for risk assessment. It provides insights into relevant regulations and methods to mitigate bias and prevent discrimination.
The handbook was elaborated as part of the 2023 ELA programme on addressing ethical and practical issues in the use of Artificial Intelligence and algorithms in risk assessment. This programme included an online training about addressing bias in AI and algorithms for risk assessment, and related ethical, legal and practical issues, which constitutes the basis of this handbook. This training was provided by Prof. Raphaële Xenidis and Prof. Benjamin van Giffen.
- Digital technologies at work and psychosocial risks – Evidence and implications for occupational safety and health
European Agency for Safety and Health at Work and Urzí Brancati, M., Digital technologies at work and psychosocial risks – Evidence and implications for occupational safety and health, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.
This report provides a comprehensive analysis of the implications of digitalisation for occupational safety and health (OSH) regarding psychosocial risk factors based on the findings of EU-OSHA publications. Drawing from over one hundred documents, including reports, policy briefs, discussion papers, case studies and results from the OSH Pulse survey 2022, the report outlines how digital technologies can result in work-related psychosocial risks and mental health issues. The analysis is broken down by type of technology and tasks that the technology is able to perform. The report presents the analysis of implications of digitalisation in terms of psychosocial risks according to the five key areas identified in EU-OSHA’s research programme on OSH and digitalisation (2020-2023): advanced robotics and artificial intelligence (AI), smart digital systems, digital platform work, remote working technologies and artificial intelligence for worker management (AIWM).
- Diversity in artificial intelligence conferences – An analysis of indicators for gender, country and institution diversity from 2007 to 2023
European Commission: Joint Research Centre, Gómez, E., Porcaro, L., Frau, P. and Vinagre, J., Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.
This report provides an overview of the divinAI project and provides a set of diversity indicators for seven core artificial intelligence (AI) conferences from 2007 to 2023: the International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI), the Annual Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI) Conference, the International Conference on Machine Learning (ICML), Neural Information Processing Systems (NeurIPS) Conference, the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) Recommender Systems (RecSys) Conference, the European Conference on Artificial Intelligence (ECAI) and the European Conference on Machine Learning/Practice of Knowledge Discovery in Databases (ECML/PKDD) . We observe that, in general, Conference Diversity Index (CDI) values are still low for the selected conferences, although showing a slight temporal improvement thanks to diversity initiatives in the AI field.
We also note slight differences between conferences, being RecSys the one with higher comparative diversity indicators, followed by general AI conferences (IJCAI, ECAI and AAAI). The selected Machine Learning conferences NeurIPS and ICML seem to provide lower values for diversity indicators. Regarding the different dimensions of diversity, gender diversity reflects a low proportion of female authors in all considered conferences, even given current gender diversity efforts in the field, which is in line with the low presence of women in technological fields. In terms of country distribution, we observe a notable presence of researchers from the EU, US and China in the selected conferences, where the presence of Chinese authors has increased in the last few years. Regarding institutions, universities and research centers or institutes play a central role in the AI scientific conferences under analysis, and the presence of industry seems to be more notable in machine learning conferences. An online dashboard that allows exploration and reproducibility complements the report.
- Glossary of human-centric artificial intelligence
European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Estévez Almenzar, M., Fernández Llorca, D., et al., Publications Office of the European Union, 2022.
Over the last few years, Artificial Intelligence (AI) has become a very active research topic, moving from a purely technical field to an interdisciplinary research domain and a very active topic in terms of policy developments. The European approach for AI focuses on two main areas: excellence and trust, enabling the development and uptake of AI while ensuring people's safety and fundamental rights. However, research and policy documentations do not always use the same vocabulary, often generating misunderstandings among researchers, policy makers, and the general public. Based on existing literature in the intersection between research, industry and policy, and given the expertise and know Joint Research Centre, we present here a glossary of terms on AI, with a focus on a human-centric approach, covering concepts related to trustworthy artificial intelligence such as transparency, accountability or fairness.
We have collected 230 different terms from more than 10 different general sources including standards, policy documents and legal texts, as well as multiple scientific references. Each term is accompanied by one or several definitions linked to references and complemented with our own definitions when no relevant source was found. We humbly hope that the work presented here can contribute to establishing the necessary common ground for the interdisciplinary and policy-centred debate on artificial intelligence.
- Is artificial intelligence threatening democracy?
European University Institute, Galariotis, I., European University Institute, 2024.
In a democracy, human beings make decisions with the aim of serving the will of the people and promoting the collective welfare of society. While machines can learn from data and generate potential democratic solutions, they fall short in grasping the intricacies of the subjective reality of democratic politics. Entrusting Artificial Intelligence (AI) systems with decision-making carries the risk of following optimal solutions shaped by falsified objective realities that AI algorithms aim to optimise. Even if the data were comprehensive and sufficient, modelling approaches struggle to fully encapsulate the complexities of subjective realities within global democracies and societies. In essence, leaving democratic politics to be governed by ostensibly logical AI classifiers is a significant gamble.
In the second high-level policy dialogue that took place on the 22 and 23 of May 2023 in Florence under the auspices of the STG Chair in Artificial Intelligence and Democracy, scholars and policymakers discussed and shared their ideas to map multiple available solutions for how democratic politics can live with an AI-powered world and, more than that, how AI can turn to a beneficial tool for democracy. Most of the participants agree that AI can be formed and transformed to a useful tool for democracies. In this policy brief, we summarise the key ideas that emerged from the discussions in this high-level policy dialogue.
- Law and ICT
European Parliament: Directorate-General for Internal Policies of the Union and Maciejewski, M., European Parliament, 2024.
Exponential progress in the area of ICT improves access to data and information, which in its turn can lead to greater accessibility, reduced complexity, efficiency and respect of fundamental rights in policy, law making and implementation of law. Drafting and publication of laws need to be reformed from paper based format to modern digital media. Expertise, evidence and data should constitute mandatory elements of policy and law making. Ex-post quantified evaluation of legislation needs to be applied consistently. This study was prepared by the European Parliament’s Policy Department for Citizens’ Rights and Constitutional Affairs at the request of the JURI Committee.
- Mapping ERC frontier research artificial intelligence
European Commission, European Research Council Executive Agency, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.
The European Research Council (ERC) is the premier European funding organisation for excellent frontier research. Since its establishment in 2007, it has been a cornerstone of the EU’s research and innovation funding programmes. The ERC gives its grantees the freedom to develop ambitious research projects that can lead to advances at the frontiers of knowledge and set a clear and inspirational target for frontier research across Europe. The ERC funds a rich and diverse portfolio of projects in all fields of science and scholarship, without any predefined academic or policy priorities. These projects can have an impact well beyond science and provide frontier knowledge and innovation to help solve societal challenges and inform EU policy objectives. This report aims to highlight how ERC-funded curiosity-driven research projects are developing or using Artificial Intelligence in their scientific processes, and how these projects and their outputs can help to both define and enable the implementation of policies related to AI and its cross-cutting applications
This report represents the first comprehensive analysis of the ERC’s AI portfolio and it is structured as follows: 1. Chapter one provides an overview of ERC-funded projects developing or using AI in science. 2. Chapter two focuses on their scientific landscape by offering a more detailed analysis of their evolution and distribution in ERC scientific domains, disciplines, and topics. 3. Chapter three gives an overview of their policy landscape, that is, by linking the projects to specific policy areas and providing examples that are relevant to the EU policies on AI. 4. Chapter four covers an analysis of a subset of ERC-funded AI projects that pose particularly pressing ethical, legal, and social questions surrounding the development or use of AI.
- Study on poverty and income inequality in the context of the digital transformation – Final report. Part A, Ensuring a socially fair digital transformation
European Commission: Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion, Khabirpour, N., Pelizzari, L., Limbers, J., Richiardi, M. et al., Study on poverty and income inequality in the context of the digital transformation – Final report. Part A, Ensuring a socially fair digital transformation, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.
This study is made of two parts: part A and part B. Part A of the study analyses – through 27 country fiches – the extent to which each EU Member State is prepared for ensuring a socially fair digital transformation in the coming years, based on both its current situation and future prospects. In this analysis, key areas of focus include the labour market, digital skills of the population, social protection as well as cross-cutting dimensions, such as the digitalization level of businesses and the quality of digital infrastructures. Part B of the study reviews – through 30 case studies – some of the main actual and potential uses of digital technologies (including AI) by a country’s public sector for improving the design and the delivery of social benefits and active labour market policies, as well as for complementing the monitoring of poverty and income inequality (the case studies analysed are mainly in Member States but also in a few third countries).
- Study on poverty and income inequality in the context of the digital transformation – Final report. Part B, Use of digital technologies (including AI) by the public sector for improving the delivery and design of social policies and active [--]
European Commission: Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion, Khabirpour, N., Pelizzari, L., Limbers, J., Richiardi, M. et al., Study on poverty and income inequality in the context of the digital transformation – Final report. Part B, Use of digital technologies (including AI) by the public sector for improving the delivery and design of social policies and active labour market policies, as well as for complementing the monitoring of poverty and income inequality, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.
This study is made of two parts: part A and part B. Part A of the study analyses – through 27 country fiches – the extent to which each EU Member State is prepared for ensuring a socially fair digital transformation in the coming years, based on both its current situation and future prospects. In this analysis, key areas of focus include the labour market, digital skills of the population, social protection as well as cross-cutting dimensions, such as the digitalization level of businesses and the quality of digital infrastructures. Part B of the study reviews – through 30 case studies – some of the main actual and potential uses of digital technologies (including AI) by a country’s public sector for improving the design and the delivery of social benefits and active labour market policies, as well as for complementing the monitoring of poverty and income inequality (the case studies analysed are mainly in Member States but also in a few third countries).
- Successful and timely uptake of artificial intelligence in science in the EU
European Commission, Directorate-General for Research and Innovation, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.
Publication metadata
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies are one of the most disruptive general purpose applications at the service of research and innovation. It acts as a catalyst for scientific breakthroughs and is rapidly becoming a key instrument in the scientific process in all areas of research. In this Scientific Opinion (SO) the Group of Chief Scientific Advisors examines how the European Commission can accelerate the responsible take-up of artificial intelligence in science in the European Union.
It focuses on a responsible uptake of AI in science – including providing access to highquality AI, respecting European values, and strengthening the position of Europe in science to boost innovation and prosperity in the EU. This SO is published in the context of the Scientific Advice Mechanism which provides independent scientific evidence and policy recommendations to the European institutions by request of the College of Commissioners.
- Use and impact of artificial intelligence in the scientific process – Foresight
European Commission, European Research Council Executive Agency, Publications Office of the European Union, 2023.
This report highlights how ERC funded researchers are using artificial intelligence (AI) in their scientific processes, and how they see its potential impact by 2030. It summarises the findings of a foresight survey conducted among ERC grantees, which focused on their present use of AI and their views on future developments by 2030, potential opportunities and risks, and the future impact of generative AI in science, such as large language models (LLMs). Developed in collaboration with DG Research & Innovation (R&I) and its unit Science Policy, Advice & Ethics/ Scientific Advice Mechanism (SAM), this report was prepared in the context of the upcoming Scientific Opinion on the responsible uptake of AI in science. The aim is to provide evidence that can inform the development and implementation of policies related to AI in the realm of science.
The use of AI in scientific and scholarly practices remains a subject of ongoing academic and policy debates at both European and international levels (Nature 2023, OECD 2023, Birhane et al. 2023, van Dis et al. 2023). AI’s deployment spans various disciplines and serves many purposes, ranging from large-scale data processing, patterns and predictions generation, experiment design and control, as well as writing and peer-reviewing of scientific papers or grant proposals. The actual and potential effects and drawbacks of AI in these contexts are widely debated. This topic has come to the foreground of a European Commission policy initiative focusing on the impact of AI in research and innovation (R&I) (Arranz et al. 2023b). In terms of research that can inform policy-making, CORDIS Results Pack on the use of AI in science has showcased a collection of EU funded projects on the topic (including 8 ERC projects). Furthermore, an upcoming Mapping Frontier Research (MFR) report on AI from ERCEA (scheduled for release in early 2024) will bolster these efforts within the framework of its Feedback to Policy (F2P) activities, as requested by the ERC Scientific Council.
- Last Updated: Jan 9, 2025 1:14 PM
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