European Commission, Directorate-General for Defence Industry and Space, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

The resurgence of war in Europe and rising tensions have created a new urgency for the European Union (EU) to better address existing and foreseeable security and defence challenges. In the defence sector, three issues stand out as critical: innovating, producing key systems and securing value chains. In particular, the European defence industry is called upon to develop the next generation of operational capabilities and the required technologies to provide additional production capacity and to build up stocks while mitigating critical dependencies along the defence value chains, including the financial and economic stability of the industrial supply network. Increasing European dual-use technologies’ shares in global markets is also paramount. At the same time, European small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) and mid-sized companies need to translate their innovation potential into viable capabilities for security and defence actors, while improved financial frameworks must support this transition.

European Security and Defence College, Annual report 2022-2023, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

In 2023, the ESDC conducted a revamped prioritisation exercise for the academic year 2023-2024, evaluating and prioritising training requirements, as derived from Member States’ input and EU policy orientations. Our obligation is to deliver on the requirements of Member States and the EU, by paying particular attention to more recent key domains, without neglecting those more traditional courses that remain relevant. These areas include hybrid threats, maritime security, space, climate change and foreign information manipulation and interference, and – very importantly – leadership skills for CSDP missions.

European Defence Agency, Annual report 2023, European Commission, 2024.

Russia's war of aggression against Ukraine continues to devastate the country and threaten the European Union. High intensity, state-to-state war is testing the EU's capacity to defend itself and its values, while Ukraine’s emergence as an independent, prosperous country is critical for the broader European security order. The EU and notably the European Defence Agency are accelerating efforts in support of Ukraine, and for the defence of Europe. While EU defence cooperation has suffered from ambiguous assumptions in the past, the war in Ukraine has brought new momentum to our common endeavour.

European Commission: Directorate-General for Economic and Financial Affairs, Cepparulo, A. and Pasimeni, P., Defence spending in the European Union, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

After more than 60 years of peace, Europe faced a watershed moment in its security, in February 2022. Following a brief overview of how years of underinvestment and fragmentation have left many weaknesses in EU defence, this study analyses the evolution of the EU defence strategy, the contribution by the EU budget and by national budgets. Finally, the paper investigates to what extent the recent increase of defence spending can have a positive effect on growth, by examining the link between defence spending and economic growth, on the basis of the existing literature.

European Union Institute for Security Studies and Andersson, J., Delivering together – Targeted partnerships for a secure world, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

The European Union has always sought partners to uphold the rules-based multilateral order. But current challenges to our common security require increased efforts, new forms of cooperation and targeted partnerships that deliver concrete results. The engagement of the EU’s closest security and defence partners could be further enhanced through a so-called ‘Partnership Plus’ format. Issue-specific cooperation on pressing common security issues such as crisis management, protecting global communications and trade routes, and security of supply should be encouraged. By forging targeted partnerships in these key areas, the EU and its partners can strengthen their collective capacity to contribute significantly to peace and security.

European Defence Agency, EDM, European defence matters, Publications Office of the European Union, 2023-2025, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2836/6701187

European Parliament: Directorate-General for Parliamentary Research Services and Pataki, Z. G., EU capabilities in space – Scenarios for space security by 2050, European Parliament, 2025, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2861/9331267

Space holds promise for both economic prosperity and the attainment of strategic goals. The EU's future role in space is contingent on fast-changing geopolitical dynamics, which can range from peaceful cooperation to heightened competition or conflict among global powers. Given the importance of this subject, the European Commission has announced plans to propose an EU space act in the second quarter of 2025.

European Parliament, Directorate-General for External Policies of the Union, Fiott, D., Simón, L., European Parliament, 2023.

This analysis focuses on developments in European Union (EU) security and defence since the Versailles Summit, held on 10–11 March 2022. It shows how the Union’s response to Russia’s war on Ukraine has unleashed and spurred on a range of operational, industrial and political initiatives that will influence security and defence policy for the years to come. The EU is presently trying to grapple with the growing relevance of deterrence and defence while affirming the importance of projecting stability beyond Europe’s borders

European Parliament: Directorate-General for External Policies of the Union, Chimits, F., McCaffrey, C., Mejino Lopez, J., Poitiers, N. et al., European economic security – Current practices and further development – In-depth analysis, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

The rise in geopolitical tensions in recent years and the weaponisation of trade links have led to an increased focus on economic security. With its Economic Security Strategy, the European Commission has put EU-level initiatives in this area into an overarching framework. In this in-depth analysis, we discuss the challenges posed by economic security and the approaches to it taken by other large economies. We then analyse the European strategy in this framework. While the EU has been slower than other large economies to focus on economic security, it has learned from its peers and there has been a notable evolution of European measures in this area. However, challenges remain, in particular with regard to the coordination of measures that are still largely national competencies. Furthermore, more could be done to align incentives for both companies and countries to avoid moral hazard risks. Finally, more progress has to be done to align the foreign policies of EU countries to give credibility to economic security instruments.

European Parliament: Directorate-General for Internal Policies of the Union and Schulz, S., The European Parliament and the CFSP budget – The case of the rapid deployment capacity, European Parliament, 2024.

Introduced by the Treaty of Maastricht in 1992, the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) came as a late addition to European Community, resp. European Union, policies. Its Security and Defence compoment (CSDP) is even more recent, having been first floated at the Cologne Summit of June 1999 in reaction to renewed insecurity in the Balkans, and fully formalised only in the Treaty of Lisbon, at a time when its first missions were already active.

European External Action Service and Borrell Fontelles, J., Europe in the 'arc of fire' – EU foreign policy in 2024, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

2024 has confirmed how much Europe is in danger. From Ukraine to the Middle East, via South Caucasus, the Horn of Africa or the Sahel, conflicts and crises have been multiplying on our doorstep. Not forgetting the rising tensions in the South China Sea. All of this at a time where the US commitment to European security is becoming much more uncertain. We have continued to support Ukraine, but we have not managed to provide enough resources to stop Russia’s constant attacks on Ukrainian civilian infrastructures and its advance into Donetsk. In the Middle East, our call and the call of the international community for a ceasefire, the release of hostages and the respect of international humanitarian law has not been heard and the conflict has spread further in the region. In this very dangerous geopolitical context, we urgently need to boost our defence capabilities and our defence industry. This book brings together blog posts, op-eds and speeches by HR/VP Josep Borrell Fontelles addressing the most pressing issues for EU’s foreign and security policy during the year 2024.

European Commission: Directorate-General for Communication, The EU’s response to the war in Ukraine – Eurobarometer report, European Commission, 2024.

The Standard Eurobarometer 101 (EB101) survey of spring 2024 was conducted from 2 April to 9 May in 38 countries or territories: the 27 Member States of the European Union (EU), eight candidate countries (Albania, Georgia, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Moldova, Serbia, Türkiye and Bosnia and Herzegovina), the Turkish Cypriot Community in the part of the country not controlled by the Government of the Republic of Cyprus, as well as in Kosovo1 and the United Kingdom.

European Union Institute for Security Studies and Spatafora, G., Fit for purpose – Reforming NATO in the age of Trump 2.0, Publications Office of the European Union, 2025, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2815/7991502

NATO is at an inflection point, caused by a growing Russian threat to Europe and shifting American strategic priorities. With President Trump demanding steep increases in defence spending and threatening to abandon the alliance, European countries are preparing to shoulder a significantly higher share of the transatlantic burden. Beyond the headlines, the real test will lie in how NATO translates political commitments into credible military capabilities, chiefly through the NATO Defence Planning Process (NDPP). This Brief explores how the alliance can be adapted to strengthen the European pillar of NATO, address the uncertainty over US commitments, and ensure deterrence.

Council of the European Union: General Secretariat of the Council, Greening the armies – Is a sustainable approach to national defence possible?, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

The need to reconcile climate and defence priorities is becoming increasingly pressing, especially at a time of significant increases in military activities and expenditure. This has received explicit support from the NATO Secretary General, who, in line with efforts undertaken so far by the EU, underlined the importance of having armed forces that are both robust and environmentally responsible. This paper investigates this topic, although it does not address the broader issue of the impact of warfare itself on C02 emissions and the environment. The first part highlights the potential win-win strategies of bringing together climate and defence objectives. The use of green resources already looks feasible for military installations and training activities, but could also offer very real operational advantages, something which is already being explored by several countries.

European Union Institute for Security Studies and Andersson, J., Into the breach! – EU military CSDP missions and operations, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

20 years after the first EU military CSDP operations in 2003 and in preparation for the Rapid Deployment Capacity (RDC) in 2025, this Brief presents three alternatives for what future EU military missions and operations could look like. The first alternative extrapolates the strong support among EU Member States for missions and operations in and around Europe. The second focuses on protecting the global commons and specifically the maritime dimension. The third alternative places the RDC at the core with missions and operations around the world. Russia’s war against Ukraine makes the ‘Europe first’ alternative the most likely and preferred option. But the EU’s reliance on seaborne trade means that it should also take on more responsibility for defending the global commons at sea.

European University Institute and Bialozyt, W., Is democracy becoming a factor in the EU's security? – The evolution of the EU policies and discourses resulting from the war in Ukraine, European University Institute, 2024.

The founding aspiration of European integration was to provide peace. Over the decades, commitment to democracy has become a feature of the EU, enshrined in the Treaty of Lisbon among its core values. At the same time, security, particularly after the failure of the European Defence Community in 1954, has remained outside the core of European integration. These two policy streams, democracy and security, have remained separated from each other for decades. The Russian invasion of Ukraine brought a shift in EU discourses and policies, highlighting the prospect, if supported by further political commitments and actions, for democracy to become a factor in European security and a guiding pillar of EU policies.

European Parliament: Directorate-General for Parliamentary Research Services, Lazarou, E., Bassot, E. and Stanicek, B., Mapping threats to peace and democracy worldwide – Normandy index 2024, Bassot, E.(editor), European Parliament, 2024.

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Conflict is rarely confined to the geographical space in which wars take place. The increasingly global effects – human, material and political – of wars and conflicts make a view of the level of threats to peace, security and democracy around the world more important than ever. The 'Normandy Index' has presented an annual measurement of these threats since the 2019 Normandy Peace Forum. The results of the 2024 exercise suggest the level of threats to peace is the highest since the Index began, confirming declining trends in global security resulting from conflict, geopolitical rivalry, growing militarisation and hybrid threats.

European Commission: Joint Research Centre, da Costa, R., Krausmann, E. and Hadjisavvas, C., Navigating climate change in defence – Climate risk management guide for chiefs of defence staff, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

Undertaking climate action and implementing robust climate risk management in the defence sector has become indispensable. Climate change poses significant risks to the defence workforce, both military and civilian. It threatens infrastructures, assets and capabilities, as well as communities in the vicinity of military installations, which provide the civilian services the armed forces depend upon. Climate change is also reshaping military missions and operations. Manifesting itself as severe weather and climate events, in changing operating conditions and amplified security issues, climate change affects operational readiness and effectiveness.

European Commission: Directorate-General for Migration and Home Affairs, ProtectEU – A new European internal security strategy, Publications Office of the European Union, 2025, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2837/6225293

As the geopolitical landscape evolves and new threats emerge, the EU needs a new European approach to internal security. Crime is becoming faster, more digital, and better organised. Hybrid threats undermine our democracies and societies. Terrorist threat levels remain high, fuelled by regional crises. The European Internal Security Strategy sets out a vision for a stronger Union – to jointly anticipate, prevent and respond to security threats, ensure the safety of its citizens, protect European democracies, and safeguard prosperity.

European Parliament: Directorate-General for External Policies of the Union, Mölling, C., Hellmonds, S., Csernatoni, R., Oliveira Martins, B. et al., Sovereign, capable, innovative, responsive – Prospects and challenges for EU security and defence policy in the 10th parliamentary term, European Parliament, 2024.

The briefings contained in this volume provide an overview of the challenges ahead in four key areas of EU security and defence policy: defence industrial policy (‘Sovereign: A dynamic defence industrial and technological base’), EU rapid response capabilities (‘Capable: From “paper tigers” to rapid and effective presence on the ground’), technology and innovative in the area of defence (‘Innovative: Keeping the technological edge in the area of security and defence’) and the fight against certain types of hybrid warfare (‘Responsive: Hybrid warfare and the implications of the Wagner model’). Together, they provide an outlook on the major questions that will confront the European Parliament in its 10th legislative term.

European Parliament, Directorate-General for External Policies of the Union, European Parliament, 2023.

This in-depth analysis (IDA) focuses on how to implement the Strategic Compass’s partnership dimension in the field of security and defence, and how to maximise the potential of the EU’s different strategic partnerships. The report not only provides an up-to-date overview of the most important security and defence partnerships, but also places them in their wider historical context, and in the context of future challenges within a fiercely changing geopolitical landscape. The report maps the EU’s different partnerships and their institutional arrangements, as well as the main policy fields in the realm of security and defence.

Frontex, Strategic risk analysis 2024, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

It is important to acknowledge the important role of foresight for Frontex as an Agency. Foresight looks at the root causes of phenomena and their possible implications for European IBM. As a forwardlooking thought process, it benefits, among other things, from broad literature reviews and the collective intelligence of experts (esp. their sensemaking and anticipatory abilities). Foresight supports organisational mindfulness in relation to the mandated areas of Frontex and national border and coast guard authorities. By enabling a high-level understanding of the ‘big picture’ of possible futures, it makes a qualitative difference in strategic conversations, policy formulation, decision-making, organisational preparedness and capability development planning. Properly communicated through the ranks, strategic foresight also helps in making essential connections between policy, strategy and operational activities, supporting organisational learning and effectiveness.

Frontex, A strengthened European border and coast guard built on trust to protect and connect Europe – Technical and operational strategy for European integrated border management 2023-2027, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

This document outlines the second Technical and Operational Strategy for European Integrated Border Management, marking a significant step forward since the initial Strategy introduced by the Agency's Management Board in March 2019. With the enhanced mandate of the European Border and Coast Guard, implemented ten months later, and the creation of the Standing Corps — the first uniformed law enforcement service at the EU level — we have seen a boost in operational effectiveness and the ability to respond swiftly across operational areas. In the four years since, amidst a global health crisis and escalating conflicts in our vicinity that have led to unprecedented migratory pressures, the Standing Corps has demonstrated its indispensable role in these increasingly complex times.

European Commission: Directorate-General for Migration and Home Affairs and Deloitte, Study on strengthening EU-funded security research and innovation – 20 years of EU-Funded Civil Security Research and Innovation – Final report, Publications Office of the European Union, 2025, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2837/0004501

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Since the beginning of the 21st century, the European Union (EU) has considerably reshaped its approach to security policy, and in this context, the EU has taken up an increasingly more active role in supporting research and innovation (R&I) initiatives within the context of civil security over the past 20 years. This evolution has occurred concurrently to the prioritisation of internal security within the EU policy agenda, as exemplified by the inclusion of a specific pillar on “Protecting citizens and freedoms” as one of the four main priorities of the 2019-2024 Strategic Agenda for the EU.

European Union Institute for Security Studies, Teer, J. and Spatafora, G., When stars align – Leveraging European defence budgets to drive a dual-use tech boom, Publications Office of the European Union, 2025, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2815/1499461

Europe faces a dual crisis of growing security threats and declining economic competitiveness. Increased defence spending offers an opportunity to address both challenges. Through initiatives such as ReArm Europe and NATO’s 5% pledge, EU Member States are committing substantial resources to bolster deterrence. Governments should also leverage these funds to invest in the continent’s long-term prosperity.