European Commission: Joint Research Centre, Trippl, M., Soete, L., Kivimaa, P., Schwaag Serger, S. et al., Addressing the regional dimension of open strategic autonomy and European green industrial policy – New perspectives and pathways for impact, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

We explore the regional implications of the policy concepts of open strategic autonomy and technology sovereignty, examining how those policies may impact and interact with industrial development and the socio-economic and -ecological transformation of regions. We highlight that the effects of policies on promoting strategic autonomy and technology sovereignty can vary significantly across regions. We demonstrate that the effectiveness of such policies can depend with regional development and cohesion strategies under certain circumstances. To exemplify these arguments, we analyse several cases, including the territorial aspects of military security, energy transitions, microchip production, and critical raw materials. Achieving OSA related goals without compromising environmental and social sustainability requires a fundamental rethink of supply chains, material sourcing and use, radically different energy systems, and a new industrial policy centred on renewable energy sources and sustainable material use.

European Commission: Directorate-General for Internal Market, Industry, Entrepreneurship and SMEs, Reetsch, A., Tessien, J., Schröder, N., Zelfde, J. et al., Background data collection for future EU end-of-waste criteria of construction and demolition waste – Final report, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

This study assessed the prioritisation for the introduction of possible future European EoW criteria for a list of ten pre-selected construction and demolition waste and by-product (CDW) streams. There was a general positive acceptance and willingness among stakeholders to introduce EU-wide EoW criteria. The results showed the highest potential for possible future EU-wide EoW criteria for the waste and by-product streams of aggregates, concrete, fired clay bricks and gypsum, followed by average potential for asphalt, inert insulation, plastic foam insulation, rigid plastics and wood, and a clear outlier for the stream of building products for reuse. It is advisable to address the highest scoring waste streams first in order to achieve a higher impact. From all the stakeholder interactions during this study, it was clear that the majority of stakeholders would be in favour of future European EoW criteria for the CDW streams investigated.

European Commission: Directorate-General for Economic and Financial Affairs and Vergano, L., Circular economy – Main features and key determinants of the EU secondary markets for materials, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

Social acceptance is growing about the need for moving from a linear to a more circular use of resources. This allows for lowering raw material consumption and waste generation, while reducing the EU resource and energy dependence from abroad, which has become economically and geo-strategically important. The EU circular economy could further expand by fostering waste prevention and preparing for re-use. Despite recent improvements in waste management capacity, the EU circularity could also benefit from enlarging secondary markets by feeding back more secondary raw materials into the economy.

Tazi, N., Orefice, M., Candelaresi, D., Martinini, S., Marchetto, A. et al., Circularity measures on critical raw materials and e-drive motors in vehicles, Publications Office of the European Union, 2025, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2760/6053264

The transition to e-mobility has accelerated the demand for and has heightened the EU’s dependency on critical raw materials such as rare earths, copper, lithium, cobalt, and nickel, increasing the urgency for higher circularity in end-of-life vehicles. Starting from a previous report, this report expands on measures outlined in the new End-of-Life Vehicle Regulation proposal 2023/0284/EC and supports its implementation by assessing novel circularity measures for vehicles and their components and parts, aligning also with the Critical Raw Materials Act and the EU’s strategic goals. Key measures include mandatory labelling for rare earth permanent magnets integrated into e-drive motors optimizing their recovery, improved disassembly processes, and higher recycling efficiency for aluminium parts and e-drive motors.

European Commission, 2025.

The Commission officially approved these strategic projects under the CRMA in the EU on 25 March 2025 and these strategic projects outside of the EU on 4 June 2025.

Bobba, S., Latunussa, C. E. L., Manni, F. M. and Mathieux, F., Deep dive on critical raw materials for batteries in the EU, Publications Office of the European Union, 2025, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2760/3300656

This report provides a comprehensive analysis of the battery industry’s supply chain in the EU, with a focus on the critical raw materials (CRMs) (1 ) required for Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). The risks associated with the concentration of the supply of their raw materials are identified. The report also analyses the bottlenecks in the subsequent stages in the supply chain, from the supply of processed materials to the capacity for manufacturing components and LIB cells. Assuming that the EU successfully achieves its climate neutrality target, the report presents the current and future deployment of batteries for mobility and energy storage up to 2050.

Taylor, N., Kuzov, T., Chatzipanagi, A., Carrara, S., Jakimów, M. et al., Deep dive on critical raw materials for solar photovoltaics in the EU, Publications Office of the European Union, 2025, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2760/0883326

The European Union (EU) faces a significant challenge to develop manufacturing capacity for solar photovoltaics (PV) and one key aspect concerns the supply of critical raw materials (CRMs) needed along the PV technology supply chain. The report considers the current and future demand for CRMs in the solar PV industry, both globally and in the EU, with a focus on 2030 and 2050. It analyses the impact of technological innovations on material demand and supply under two scenarios: a baseline (BASE) adoption technology scenario, which assumes a gradual growth of the solar PV market driven by existing technologies, and an innovation (INNO) technology scenario with a faster adoption of new technologies, such as silicon-perovskite tandem solar cells.

Carrara, S., Baldassarre, B., Jakimów, M., Kuzov, T., Mc Govern, L. et al., Deep dive on critical raw materials for wind turbines in the EU, Publications Office of the European Union, 2025, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2760/5665594

The transition to clean energy is both a climate imperative and a materials challenge. This report provides a comprehensive analysis of the supply chain for wind turbines, a cornerstone of the EU’s energy transition strategy. Significant dependencies are found for rare earth elements including neodymium, dysprosium, praseodymium, and terbium, critical for high-performance wind turbine magnets, and balsa wood for turbine blades, with the People’s Republic of China and Ecuador dominating these respective supply chains.

European Parliament: Directorate-General for Internal Policies of the Union and Gros, D., A European sovereignty fund – Investing in Europe’s future and security, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

The European Sovereignty Fund (EUSF) should invest in Europe’s future by investing indirectly in start-ups and scale-ups via the existing Fund of the European Innovation Council (EIC). This would be concrete step to advance the aims of the recently agreed Strategic Technologies for Europe Platform (STEP). The EUSF could also invest in security of supply by acquiring and managing strategic stockpiles of critical raw materials. This would foster the aim of the Critical Raw Material Act. To succeed the management of the EUSF should be strictly independent of political influence. The author acknowledges very helpful comments from EP staff that were instrumental in improving this contribution. This document was commissioned by the Economic Governance and EMU Scrutiny Unit at the request of the ECON Committee.

European Commission: Directorate-General for Trade and Economic Security, EU’s global agreement with Mexico – A modern deal for competitiveness, economic security and sustainability, Publications Office of the European Union, 2025, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2781/5425311

On 17 January 2025, the EU with Mexico concluded negotiations for a Global Agreement with Mexico. Mexico is one of the EU’s longest standing trade agreement partner, with our original agreement dating back to 2000. The deal will support economic growth, boost competitiveness and strengthen resilience on both sides by opening up trade and investment opportunities and securing sustainable access and processing of raw materials.

European Commission: Directorate-General for Trade and Economic Security, EU’s global agreement with Mexico – Enhancing trade and investment in critical raw materials, Publications Office of the European Union, 2025, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2781/4929475

A secure and sustainable supply of critical raw materials is at the core of the EU’s competitiveness, including as part of our green and digital transitions. It is also vital for increased EU economic security and defence capabilities. While the European Critical Raw Materials Act aims at ensuring a diverse, secure, and sustainable supply of critical raw materials for the EU’s industry, the EU continues to rely on their imports. The modernised EU-Mexico agreement will be instrumental, since Mexico is a producer of several of these materials, and it does so in a safe and sustainable manner. Mexico is a main resource for EU sourcing of fluorspar (33%), a substance used in the steel, iron and aluminium supply chain, as well as in the refrigeration sector. Mexico has also several other raw materials endowments (antimony, copper, zinc, lead).

European Commission: Directorate-General for Internal Market, Industry, Entrepreneurship and SMEs and Videnord, J., Global supply risks and resilience – Lessons from Swedish firms, Publications Office of the European Union, 2025, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2873/3147489

Economic resilience is defined as the ability to withstand and recover from economic shocks. In this report, we evaluate various strategies that companies can use to strengthen their supply chains—something that has become increasingly urgent due to the geopolitical situation and unpredictable trade conditions, particularly concerning import tariffs and export restrictions on critical raw materials from countries such as China, which holds an almost monopolistic position in rare earth elements, essential for the green transition.

European Union Institute for Security Studies and Trakimavičius, L., Going green without China? – The EU's clean tech tighrope, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

The EU has ambitious goals for accelerating the energy transition through locally manufactured technologies. However, Beijing’s grip on the clean tech industry makes it difficult for the EU to go green without Chinese equipment or its extensive supply chains. China’s advantage lies in government incentives, access to critical materials, highly efficient manufacturing ecosystems, lower labour costs and less stringent environmental regulations. To advance its energy goals, the EU should pursue a multipronged strategy. It needs to ensure a level playing field for its clean tech companies and prioritise innovative technologies that rely less on imported materials and Chinese supply chains. It also has to secure access to critical materials through trade deals and consider establishing stockpiles of these.

European Commission: Directorate-General for Research and Innovation, Boekholt, P., Thielmann, A., Strauka, O. and Endo, C., Horizon Europe and the digital & industrial transition – Interim evaluation support study – Phase 2 – Horizon Europe – Institutionalised partnership report – EIT RawMaterials, Boekholt, P.(editor) and Strauka, O.(editor), Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

This report, part of the Evaluation study on European Framework Programmes for Research and Innovation, examines the EIT RawMaterials partnership, covering both Horizon 2020 and Horizon Europe. It assesses the partnership's alignment with key evaluation criteria including relevance, coherence, effectiveness, efficiency, and added value. Specific areas of focus include additionality, directionality, international positioning, transparency, and phasing out preparedness. Established in 2014, EIT RawMaterials aims to secure sustainable raw materials supply through innovation, education, and entrepreneurship. It fosters collaboration between businesses, academia, research, and investment, driving disruptive innovations. The partnership invests in future innovators through education initiatives and supports Europe's transition to a circular, green, and digital economy.

European Commission: Joint Research Centre, Molnar, J., Nardo, M. and Zaurino, E., A methodological toolbox to monitor the semiconductors’ supply-chain, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024

Since the beginning of the pandemic in 2020, the European Union has experienced unprecedented disruptions in the semiconductor value chain. To respond to the crisis and enhance the resilience of the supply chain, the European Commission has proposed the European Chips Act, which includes the willingness to create a mechanism to monitor the semiconductor value chain and to anticipate semiconductor crises. Based on a review of the relevant public and commercial data, this report presents a set of structural indicators and suggest the use of real-time monitoring tools.

European Parliament: Directorate-General for Parliamentary Research Services, Tercero Espinoza, L., Kroll, H., Stijepic, D., Bettin, S. et al., The role of research and innovation in ensuring a safe and sustainable supply of critical raw materials in the EU, European Parliament, 2024.

This study aims to illuminate the role of research and innovation (R&I) in ensuring a safe and sustainable supply of critical raw materials (CRM). It provides background information on CRMs, related EU policies, sustainability issues, and public controversy, tying all these in with their respective R&I needs. The study reviews the role of R&I and cooperation in securing the EU's raw material supply, highlighting the significance of R&I along the value chain and analysing patenting activities and international cooperation. It concludes by presenting 11 policy options onEU institutional and R&I capacities, international collaboration and legitimacy and regulation, assessing each against a list of dimensions (e.g. costs, benefits and feasibility).

Ierides, M., Nohl, L., Alves Dias, P., Nohl, M., Blagoeva, D. et al., Substitution and reduction of critical and strategic raw materials in clean energy technologies – An overview of solutions using advanced materials, Publications Office of the European Union, 2025, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2760/5159022

The transition to clean energy technologies requires increased amounts of critical raw materials. Advanced materials (materials rationally designed to have new or enhanced properties) can potentially reduce dependence on critical raw materials, ideally also providing superior performance, increased lifetime or lower costs. In this report, we investigate the current landscape and potential of advanced materials and technologies focused on reducing or eliminating the use of critical raw materials in five key energy technologies: batteries, wind turbines, solar photovoltaics, fuel cells and electrolysers, and electric-vehicle motors. Our analysis identifies the most effective substitution solutions within each stage of development to fully exploit the innovation potential, and highlights some possible trade-offs involved.

European Commission: Directorate-General for Internal Market, Industry, Entrepreneurship and SMEs, Arjona, R., Connell, W. and Herghelegiu, C., Supply chain tectonics – Empirics on how the EU is plotting its path through global trade fragmentation, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

This paper investigates how the import relations of the European Union (EU) have recently shifted in an increasingly fragmented global trade environment. Using trade data at a highly disaggregated product level, we analyse the reallocation of EU import flows, examining its implications in terms of changes in import diversification levels and price dynamics. The timing of this analysis is important given the rising geopolitical uncertainties and the ongoing implementation of EU policies aimed at enhancing internal capacities and mitigating supply chain risks in critical supply chains. Our findings confirm that the EU’s supply chains are not static entities but rather dynamic networks with a significant capacity for adaptation to the new global landscape.

European Parliament: Directorate-General for External Policies of the Union, Vandome, C. and Dideberg, R., Traceability of critical raw materials, with a focus on Africa, European Parliament, 2025, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2861/8249276

The traceability of critical raw materials along the supply chain is pivotal in meeting wider public demands for corporate sustainability and complying with relevant regulations from the European Union that contain requirements for responsible sourcing and the transparency of supply chains. This paper serves as a technical and logistical primer on traceability mechanisms, focusing on upstream mining in Africa – the part of a mineral supply chain from extraction to transformation.

European Commission: Directorate-General for Internal Market, Industry, Entrepreneurship and SMEs and Ighilahriz, M., Update of the 2015 material system analyses – Final report, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

Consistent information on raw material value chains is key for sustainable resources management, to guarantee the supply of raw materials and to strengthen the European Union’s industrial competitiveness. The European Commission has launched the update of the 2015 Material System Analyses of 23 materials. The MSA studies consider the entire life cycle of a selected material, investigating the stocks and flows of materials throughout the economy. They can help identifying opportunities to source materials from urban mining or waste streams, as well as potential bottlenecks in the value chain. MSAs also support the monitoring of the circular economy and the development of the list of critical raw materials (CRM). The list of MSAs was expanded to 11 additional materials: strontium, titanium, and additional rare earth elements for which no MSA has previously been conducted. REEs are materials with a very high supply risk, and only 6 were covered by the previous 2015 MSA. Moreover, among these additional materials, strontium and REEs were assessed as critical in the 2023 list. Titanium was assessed as non-critical in the 2023 list.