Artificial Intelligence, Security, Defence and Warfare
Selected publications
Selected EU publications
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Adopt AI study – Final study report
European Commission, Directorate-General for Communications Networks, Content and Technology (CNECT), 2024.
A study commissioned by the European Commission highlights the significant potential of Artificial Intelligence (AI) to improve public sector services across the EU. The report emphasizes that AI can enhance citizen-government interactions, boost analytical capabilities, and increase efficiency in key areas such as healthcare, mobility, e-Government, and education. These sectors are identified as among the most ready for large-scale AI deployment, with applications ranging from autonomous vehicles and smart traffic systems to AI-driven healthcare solutions and education technologies.
However, the study also outlines several challenges hindering AI uptake in the public sector. These include complex public procurement processes, difficulties in data management, a lack of regulatory clarity, and concerns about bias in AI decision-making. In response, the report provides a series of policy recommendations aimed at accelerating AI adoption. These include increasing funding and resources for AI in public services, ensuring transparency and accountability in AI systems, promoting cross-border data sharing, and aligning industry and public sector expectations. The European Commission is advised to create a clear regulatory framework for AI, prioritise long-term implementation, and foster human-centric, trustworthy AI solutions. By addressing these challenges, the EU aims to position itself as a global leader in the development of trustworthy and sustainable AI technologies for the public sector.
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Aerospace & defence ecosystem – Robotics and drones
European Commission: Directorate-General for Internal Market, Industry, Entrepreneurship and SMEs, Aerospace & defence ecosystem – Robotics and drones, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.
Robotics, which includes drones, is a dual-use technology with civil and defence applications. Civil applications include industrial robots (the socalled cobots) and service robots in logistics, agriculture, and cleaning services. Exoskeletons (or wearable robotics) are increasingly important in civil healthcare and defence applications. In defence, both manned and unmanned types of robots, including drones are used. Drones are used for intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance missions. They help the soldiers on the ground and sitting far away to plan their next move.
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AI Act Regulation (EU) 2024/1689 – Regulation (EU) 2024/1689 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 June 2024 laying down harmonised rules on artificial intelligence and amending Regulations (EC) No 300/2008, (EU) No 167/2013, (EU) No 168/201
European Data Protection Supervisor, AI Act Regulation (EU) 2024/1689 – Regulation (EU) 2024/1689 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 June 2024 laying down harmonised rules on artificial intelligence and amending Regulations (EC) No 300/2008, (EU) No 167/2013, (EU) No 168/2013, (EU) 2018/858, (EU) 2018/1139 and (EU) 2019/2144 and Directives 2014/90/EU, (EU) 2016/797 and (EU) 2020/1828 (Artificial Intelligence Act) (Text with EEA relevance), Publications Office of the European Union, 2025, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2804/4225375
The purpose of this Regulation is to improve the functioning of the internal market and promote the uptake of human-centric and trustworthy artificial intelligence (AI), while ensuring a high level of protection of health, safety, fundamental rights enshrined in the Charter, including democracy, the rule of law and environmental protection, against the harmful effects of AI systems in the Union and supporting innovation.
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Annual report 2022-2023 – European Security and Defence College
European Security and Defence College, Annual report 2022-2023, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.
In 2023, the ESDC conducted a revamped prioritisation exercise for the academic year 2023-2024, evaluating and prioritising training requirements, as derived from Member States’ input and EU policy orientations. Our obligation is to deliver on the requirements of Member States and the EU, by paying particular attention to more recent key domains, without neglecting those more traditional courses that remain relevant. These areas include hybrid threats, maritime security, space, climate change and foreign information manipulation and interference, and – very importantly – leadership skills for CSDP missions.
During the last year, the ESDC has actively engaged in productive and structured lessons learnt processes, both internally and externally. As part of the Knowledge Management mandate within the EEAS Integrated Approach to Security and Peace Directorate, the ESDC is part of the annual Conflict Prevention and Crisis Response lessons process, validated by the PSC. Internally, it conducted evaluations of its working practices and procedures through dedicated team retreats, with the involvement of external facilitators. Important, easily recognisable results can be seen for example in the return to the presence-only policy of ESDC courses, but also in a more streamlined communication. Tangible outcomes include the periodic review of all curricula through the EAB and the regular update of autonomous knowledge units (AKU) used for pre-course eLearning. More than 30 curricula were reviewed and six AKUs updated or created. The 2024 review process will provide for further substantial and actionable evaluation of activities.
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Artificial intelligence (AI) and human rights – Using AI as a weapon of repression and its impact on human rights – In-depth analysis
European Parliament: Directorate-General for External Policies of the Union and Ünver, A., Artificial intelligence (AI) and human rights – Using AI as a weapon of repression and its impact on human rights – In-depth analysis, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.
This in-depth analysis (IDA) explores the most prominent actors, cases and techniques of algorithmic authoritarianism together with the legal, regulatory and diplomatic framework related to AI-based biases as well as deliberate misuses. With the world leaning heavily towards digital transformation, AI’s use in policy, economic and social decision-making has introduced alarming trends in repressive and authoritarian agendas. Such misuse grows ever more relevant to the European Parliament, resonating with its commitment to safeguarding human rights in the context of digital trans-formation.
By shedding light on global patterns and rapidly developing technologies of algorithmic authoritarianism, this IDA aims to produce a wider understanding of the complex policy, regulatory and diplomatic challenges at the intersection of technology, democracy and human rights. Insights into AI’s role in bolstering authoritarian tactics offer a foundation for Parliament’s advocacy and policy interventions, underscoring the urgency for a robust international framework to regulate the use of AI, whilst ensuring that technological progress does not weaken fundamental freedoms. Detailed case studies and policy recommendations serve as a strategic resource for Parliament’s initiatives: they highlight the need for vigilance and proactive measures by combining partnerships (technical assistance), industrial thriving (AI Act), influence (regulatory convergence) and strength (sanctions, export controls) to develop strategic policy approaches for countering algorithmic control encroachments.
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The EDA action plan on autonomous systems – Preparing the autonomous systems of the future
European Defence Agency, The EDA action plan on autonomous systems – Preparing the autonomous systems of the future, European Defence Agency, 2024, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2836/6119972
Autonomous systems (AS) are increasingly shaping our world, driving significant societal transformations. In today’s fast-evolving and challenging international landscape, where Europe and its Member States (MS) must maintain a technological edge to strengthen defence capabilities, advances in areas such as robotics, artificial intelligence (AI), networked systems-of-systems, renewable energy, microelectronics, advanced computing, human-machine interfaces, and big data are enabling the development of highly capable AS.
These advancements offer significant advantages to those who can leverage them. There is significant evidence that autonomy provides substantial military value, offering benefits such as reducing personnel exposure to operational risks, accelerating decision-making in time-critical operations, and improving performance through enhanced precision, speed, persistence, endurance, and scale. Additionally, AS reduce cognitive load on soldiers and enable missions in environments that are “dull, dirty, dangerous, and dear” — scenarios that would otherwise be unfeasible or unaffordable. In military context, AS have the potential to deliver operational benefits across a wide range of missions. These range from intelligence, surveillance, target acquisition, and reconnaissance (ISTAR), utilising distributed and persistent vehicles and sensors, to logistics and resupply, where autonomous platforms can transport supplies and ammunition to soldiers and offer in-theatre mobility. Moreover, AS can provide stand-off precision effects against sophisticated threats, ensuring mission success in complex battle environments.
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EDM, European defence matters magazine
European Defence Agency, (27), Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.
European Defence Agency looks back at its first two decades - and to the future.
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Emerging and disruptive digital technologies – National, regional, and global perspectives
European Union Institute for Security Studies, Andersen, L., Broeders, D. and Csernatoni, R., Emerging and disruptive digital technologies – National, regional, and global perspectives, Andersen, L.(editor), Broeders, D.(editor) and Csernatoni, R.(editor), Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.
This volume is based on papers presented and discussed at the conference Closing the Gap 2023, Emerging and Disruptive Digital Technologies: Regional Perspectives, on 6 and 7 December 2023 at Glazen Zaal in The Hague, the Netherlands. The conference was organised by Leiden University, as part of the EU Cyber Direct project, and brought together authors and representatives from numerous institutions around the world.
The aim of the conference was to explore the diversity of interpretations regarding the challenges and opportunities associated with various digital emerging and disruptive technologies (EDTs), de-centre approaches to their study (which have so far been largely Western or Europe-centric in nature) as well as enrich the state of the art. The chapters in this volume are divided into three sections focusing respectively on ‘national perspectives: policy meets technology’; ‘interstate and diplomatic arenas: navigating critical emerging technologies’; and ‘harnessing quantum technologies nationally and internationally’. In each of the chapters, authors address different geographical locations — be it cities, countries or blocks of countries — in relation to the application or consideration of a range of digital EDTs in different contexts.
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EU SatCen – Annual report 2023
European Union Satellite Centre, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.
The year 2023 presented SatCen with its most significant challenges and achievements to date. Russia’s ongoing war of aggression since its full-scale invasion of Ukraine, and the crisis in Gaza from October onwards, dramatically heightened the need for accurate, reliable and timely geospatial intelligence, underlining SatCen’s status as a key provider of EU situational awareness. In view of these unprecedented demands, the Centre demonstrably strengthened its capabilities and operational tempo, exceeding past records and user expectations.
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Generative AI in Cybersecurity – Balancing Innovation and Risk
Cybersecurity Service for the Union institutions, bodies, offices and agencies (CERT-EU), 2025.
Generative AI technology has emerged as a transformative innovation with the potential to disrupt industries and reshape society. While predicting its future trajectory is challenging due to the rapid pace of technological evolution, past trends provide valuable insights. The launch of ChatGPT marked a pivotal moment, sparking widespread interest and changing the way businesses and individuals interact with AI. T
his prompted competitors like Google and Anthropic to release proprietary models, although these remain tightly controlled by their developers. At the same time, the rise of open-source models, such as those based on Meta’s LLaMA or Mistral AI, has democratised access, allowing organisations and individuals to deploy, customise, and run AI tools independently at lower costs. These models now rival their closed-source counterparts in performance, providing privacy-conscious entities with a viable alternative for on-premises deployment.
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Generative AI outlook report – Exploring the intersection of technology, society, and policy
Abendroth-Dias, K., Vespe, M., Arias Cabarcos, P., Kotsev, A., Bacco, M. et al., Generative AI outlook report – Exploring the intersection of technology, society, and policy, Vespe, M.(editor), Kotsev, A.(editor), Van Bavel, R.(editor) and Navajas Cawood, E.(editor), Publications Office of the European Union, 2025, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2760/1109679
This Outlook report, prepared by the European Commission’s Joint Research Centre (JRC), examines the transformative role of Generative AI (GenAI) with a specific emphasis on the European Union. It highlights the potential of GenAI for innovation, productivity, and societal change. GenAI is a disruptive technology due to its capability of producing human-like content at an unprecedented scale. As such, it holds multiple opportunities for advancements across various sectors, including healthcare, education, science, and creative industries. At the same time, GenAI also presents significant challenges, including the possibility to amplify misinformation, bias, labour disruption, and privacy concerns. All those issues are cross-cutting and therefore, the rapid development of GenAI requires a multidisciplinary approach to fully understand its implications.
Against this context, the Outlook report begins with an overview of the technological aspects of GenAI, detailing their current capabilities and outlining emerging trends. It then focuses on economic implications, examining how GenAI can transform industry dynamics and necessitate adaptation of skills and strategies. The societal impact of GenAI is also addressed, with focus on both the opportunities for inclusivity and the risks of bias and over-reliance. Considering these challenges, the regulatory framework section outlines the EU’s current legislative framework, such as the AI Act and horizontal Data legislation to promote trustworthy and transparent AI practices. Finally, sector-specific ‘deep dives’ examine the opportunities and challenges that GenAI presents. This section underscores the need for careful management and strategic policy interventions to maximize its potential benefits while mitigating the risks. The report concludes that GenAI has the potential to bring significant social and economic impact in the EU, and that a comprehensive and nuanced policy approach is needed to navigate the challenges and opportunities while ensuring that technological developments are fully aligned with democratic values and EU legal framework.
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Innovations hubs overview – Quick reference booklet
European Defence Agency, Innovations hubs overview – Quick reference booklet, European Defence Agency, 2024, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2836/8847249
In an era where the velocity of technological advancement is unprecedented, the landscape of defence is rapidly evolving. The European Defence Agency (EDA), through the establishment of the Hub for European Defence Innovation (HEDI), acknowledges the imperative need to harness and synergize innovations that bolster our collective security and defence capabilities. This booklet serves as a cornerstone in this mission, offering a comprehensive mapping of the most pivotal Innovation Hubs across the globe, with a keen focus on those within European countries.
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Interstate and diplomatic arenas – Navigating critical emerging technologies
European Union Institute for Security Studies, Andersen, L., Broeders, D. and Csernatoni, R., in Emerging and disruptive digital technologies – National, regional, and global perspectives, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024, pp. 81-203.
This volume is based on papers presented and discussed at the conference Closing the Gap 2023, Emerging and Disruptive Digital Technologies: Regional Perspectives, on 6 and 7 December 2023 at Glazen Zaal in The Hague, the Netherlands. The conference was organised by Leiden University, as part of the EU Cyber Direct project, and brought together authors and representatives from numerous institutions around the world. The conference was organised by Leiden University, as part of the EU Cyber Direct project, and brought together authors and representatives from numerous institutions around the world. The aim of the conference was to explore the diversity of interpretations regarding the challenges and opportunities associated with various digital emerging and disruptive technologies (EDTs), de-centre approaches to their study (which have so far been largely Western or Europe-centric in nature) as well as enrich the state of the art. The chapters in this volume are divided into three sections focusing respectively on ‘national perspectives: policy meets technology’; ‘interstate and diplomatic arenas: navigating critical emerging technologies’; and ‘harnessing quantum technologies nationally and internationally’. In each of the chapters, authors address different geographical locations — be it cities, countries or blocks of countries — in relation to the application or consideration of a range of digital EDTs in different contexts.
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Sovereign, capable, innovative, responsive – Prospects and challenges for EU security and defence policy in the 10th parliamentary term
European Parliament: Directorate-General for External Policies of the Union, Mölling, C., Hellmonds, S., Csernatoni, R., Oliveira Martins, B. et al., Sovereign, capable, innovative, responsive – Prospects and challenges for EU security and defence policy in the 10th parliamentary term, European Parliament, 2024.
The briefings contained in this volume provide an overview of the challenges ahead in four key areas of EU security and defence policy: defence industrial policy (‘Sovereign: A dynamic defence industrial and technological base’), EU rapid response capabilities (‘Capable: From “paper tigers” to rapid and effective presence on the ground’), technology and innovative in the area of defence (‘Innovative: Keeping the technological edge in the area of security and defence’) and the fight against certain types of hybrid warfare (‘Responsive: Hybrid warfare and the implications of the Wagner model’). Together, they provide an outlook on the major questions that will confront the European Parliament in its 10th legislative term.
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Trustworthiness of AI in Defence: Developing Responsible, Ethical, and Trustworthy AI Systems for European Defence: White paper
European Defence Agency, 2025.
The purpose of this document is to collect, present and describe the aspects of Trustworthiness for AI in Defence in a ‘food for thought’ approach reflecting the combined view of AI experts and stakeholders from Defence Industry, Academia and Ministries of Defence. This effort is performed in the context of the European Defence Agency’s (EDA) Action Plan on Artificial Intelligence for Defence and tries to address the topics of trusted AI and verification, validation and certification requirements analysis.
The topics covered and analysed in this document will provide the appropriate knowledge of the current global status considering the AI regulations, standards and frameworks for AI trustworthiness and will also recommend the follow-up activities that will further assist the EU Members States and Defence Industry to better prepare, plan and develop the future AI systems aligned with the identified
expectations.
- Last Updated: Nov 6, 2025 3:05 PM
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