European Commission: Directorate-General for Communications Networks, Content and Technology, Code of conduct on disinformation – As amended in October 2024, Publications Office of the European Union, 2025.

Following the European Commission Guidance on Strengthening the Code of Practice on Disinformation the European Commission Communication on the European Democracy Action Plan the European Commission Communication “Tackling online disinformation: a European approach, the Council Conclusions of 28 June 2018, and the various important initiatives taking place across Europe to address the challenges posed by the dissemination of disinformation, the Signatories of the present Code of Practice (the “Code”) recognise their role in contributing to the fight against Disinformation, which for the rest of the Code is considered to include misinformation, disinformation , information influence operations and foreign interference in the information space (“Disinformation”).

European Commission: Directorate-General for Communications Networks, Content and Technology, DSA elections toolkit for digital services coordinators – Instruments, best practices, and lessons learnt, Publications Office of the European Union, 2025.

The DSA Elections Toolkit for Digital Services Coordinators (DSCs) aims to guide the DSCs’ contribution to the whole-of-society effort to protect the integrity of electoral processes in the European Union, with the ultimate goal of protecting EU citizens’ fundamental rights, particularly the freedom of expression and information, the right to vote and the right to stand as a candidate. The toolkit has been compiled by the European Board for Digital Services and the European Commission as part of a broader collective effort under the Digital Services Act (DSA) - to develop expertise and capabilities on systemic and emerging issues across the EU. Based on the Commission’s Election Guidelines issued in April 2024, the toolkit summarises approaches, methods, and actions the DSCs have piloted to support more effective tailoring and better performance of mitigation measures by Very Large Online Platforms (VLOPs) and Very Large Online Search Engines ((VLOSEs) in the electoral contexts of individual Member States.

Scharfbillig, M., Allegra, A., Brossard, D., Cassio, L. G., Cologna, V. et al., Trust in science for policy Nexus, Publications Office of the European Union, 2025.

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The "Trust in Science for Policy Nexus" workshop, held in Ispra, Italy, on September 12-13, 2024, convened by the European Commission's Joint Research Centre, the International Science Council, and co-sponsored by the US National Science Foundation, explored the intricate dynamics of trust in science as it relates to policymaking. This workshop addressed the challenges and strategies for fostering trust among scientists, policymakers, and the public, particularly in the context of disinformation and the current political situation. One of the most fundamental questions was how far issues of trust in science for policy can be separated from issues of trust in democratic institutions in general.

Publications Office of the European Union, 2025.

Discover "Unpacking the Truth," a new educational game designed to tackle disinformation head-on. Produced by the Publications Office of the EU and the European Commission Representation in Luxembourg, this interactive classroom activity empowers students aged 16 to 18 with critical thinking and fact-checking skills. Dive into a fictional social media post and navigate the world of false claims with the guidance of captivating EU-themed characters. Through engaging gameplay, students will learn to utilise EU resources to debunk disinformation effectively.

European Commission: Joint Research Centre, Corbane, C., Eklund, G., Gyenes, Z., Lentini, A. et al., Cross-border and emerging risks in Europe – Overview of state of science, knowledge and capacity, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

In this report, the Joint Research Centre (JRC) expands its exploration of complex disaster risks that transcend national borders and introduce novel challenges to the European Union. Taking stock of previous JRC flagship reports on understanding risks (Science for Disaster Risk Management Book Series and the Recommendations for National Risk Assessment versions 0 and 1), this document addresses the multi-faceted nature of cross-border and emerging risks in Europe. The report collects the contributions from expert teams across 8 JRC directorates and external partners. It analyses the current landscape of risks characterized by their potential for widespread impact across the continent, necessitating a coordinated European response.

Hans KUNSTMAN, European University Institute, 2024.

Disinformation is commonly identified as one of the most urgent threats to European democracies. Although the topic has only recently gained popularity in academic literature, governmental actors have addressed the perceived threat of disinformation with legislation and policies. Scholars have successfully identified which factors determine a country’s resilience to disinformation. Policy responses have not been studied systematically, especially not in relation to insights on resilience.

European University Institute, Chystoforova, K. and Reviglio, U., EDMO experts’ feedback on structural indicators for the EU code of practice on disinformation, European University Institute, 2024.

In September 2022, the Center for Media Pluralism and Media Freedom (CMPF) of the European University Institute within the EDMO project put forward the initial pilot methodology for Structural Indicators to monitor the Code of Practice on Disinformation (CoP), as called for in the 2022 update of the CoP. EDMO has also assembled a group of experts with outstanding combined expertise in researching disinformation and measuring anti-disinformation policy effectiveness. The mandate of this group is to contribute, on a voluntary basis, possible complementary and alternative approaches to the initial proposal on Structural Indicators. As part of this process, EDMO conducted a series of interviews with 17 members of the Expert Group between June 11 and September 19, to seek their feedback on the Proposal. This report is a summary of the insights and suggestions voiced during these interviews.

European Union Agency for Cybersecurity, Lella, I., Theocharidou, M., Magonara, E., Malatras, A. et al., ENISA threat landscape 2024 – July 2023 to June 2024, Lella, I.(editor), Theocharidou, M.(editor), Magonara, E.(editor), Malatras, A.(editor), Svetozarov Naydenov, R.(editor), Ciobanu, C.(editor) and Chatzichristos, G.(editor), 2024.

2024 marks the 20th anniversary of the European Union Agency for Cybersecurity, ENISA. ENISA has been constantly monitoring the cybersecurity threat landscape and monitoring on its state with its annual ENISA Threat Landscape (ETL) report and additionally with a series of situational awareness and cyber threat intelligence products. Over time, the ETL has served as a crucial tool for comprehending the present state of cybersecurity within the European Union (EU), furnishing insights into trends and patterns. This, in turn, has guided pertinent decisions and prioritisation of actions and recommendations in the domain of cybersecurity. Reporting over the course of 2023 and 2024, ETL highlights findings on the cybersecurity threat landscape during a yearlong geopolitical escalation.

Briefing, European Parliament, 2024.

Fake news and coordinated disinformation campaigns have become in recent years instruments of political interference, as highlighted by Parliament’s special committee looking into the matter in the ninth term.The June 2024 European elections and several national elections were targeted by information manipulation incidents.

European Parliament: Directorate-General for Internal Policies of the Union, Aouati, O., Freguglia, P., Heiss, R., Patras, S. et al., How to reduce the impact of disinformation on Europeans’ health, European Parliament, 2024.

This paper provides a broad overview of the emerging challenges connected with disinformation in the area of health, how it spreads and the damage it causes. The report highlights proposed or implemented measures at national, European and international level to address health-related disinformation, accompanied by recommendations to mitigate its impact on the well-being of Europeans.

European Commission: Directorate-General for Communication, How to spot and fight disinformation – Toolkit for teachers, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

This toolkit aims to give secondary teachers resources in order to start conversations with their students about the important questions raised by the spread of false information, and more specifically disinformation. This has become an increasing problem in recent years. These relate to health, democracy, the environment, and the cultural and legal norms underpinning our societies.

European Parliament: Directorate-General for Parliamentary Research Services, Lazarou, E., Bassot, E. and Stanicek, B., Mapping threats to peace and democracy worldwide – Normandy index 2024, Bassot, E.(editor), European Parliament, 2024.

Conflict is rarely confined to the geographical space in which wars take place. The increasingly global effects – human, material and political – of wars and conflicts make a view of the level of threats to peace, security and democracy around the world more important than ever. The 'Normandy Index' has presented an annual measurement of these threats since the 2019 Normandy Peace Forum. The results of the 2024 exercise suggest the level of threats to peace is the highest since the Index began, confirming declining trends in global security resulting from conflict, geopolitical rivalry, growing militarisation and hybrid threats.

European Union Institute for Security Studies and Kovalčíková, N., Minds and machines – Foreign interference in the digital space, Kovalčíková, N.(editor), Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

This Chaillot Paper delves into the phenomenon of foreign interference and the risk it poses to democratic societies. It explores the interplay between information manipulation and disruptive cyber operations, revealing their role as complementary components within a broader strategy. Dedicated chapters examine how interference manifests across various sectors, including social, political, economic, digital and security domains, describing existing tools and evolving policy frameworks. Each case study follows a clear structure, presenting an incident, its effects and the implemented responses. The volume concludes by identifying convergences and divergences across the cases studied, and highlights foreign interference as a critical and growing threat to transnational security. It offers targeted recommendations on how the EU can significantly bolster its defences and resilience against this threat.

European Commission: Directorate-General for Communications Networks, Content and Technology, Report on the European elections – Digital Services Act and code of practice on disinformation, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

The Digital Services Act (DSA) is a new, global first-of-its kind rulebook for platform responsibility. With the DSA, the European Union possesses a powerful regulatory framework to assess and mitigate risks to the information environment in the EU, while safeguarding fundamental rights. The DSA is complemented by the Code of Practice on Disinformation, the first worldwide industryled framework in the digital field and source of industry best practices to limit the spread of online disinformation. This report gives an overview of the actions taken by the European Commission and Digital Services Coordinators (DSCs) to monitor compliance and to enforce the DSA, as well as the actions undertaken under the Code of Practice on Disinformation and the actions taken by the European Digital Media Observatory (EDMO) in the context of the European elections that took place between 6 and 9 June 2024. This report is not an assessment by the Commission of the actions undertaken by VLOPSEs for the European elections.

European Union Institute for Security Studies, Kovalčíková, N., De Agostini, L. and Catena, B., Strengthening resilience in the East – How the EU can empower countries against foreign interference, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

Foreign information manipulation and interference (FIMI) challenges EU strategic interests in the Eastern Neighbourhood, impacting not just communication and democratic processes but also partner countries’ security. In the ‘Eastern trio’ of Georgia, Moldova, and Ukraine, FIMI risks have escalated, threatening both candidate countries and the EU’s Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP). The EU should consider adapting its CSDP to address these rising threats, as highlighted in the new Civilian Compact, and prioritise integrating FIMI countermeasures into the core of its CSDP efforts, especially in regions of strategic interest. EUPM Moldova demonstrates how CSDP can strengthen resilience across multiple domains. The mission could serve as a blueprint for designing more flexible CSDP missions to respond to this challenge.

European Commission: Directorate-General for Communication, Tackling disinformation and information manipulation, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

Democracy is one of the fundamental values of our European Union. It is at the heart of our open and transparent societies. In the European Union, citizens can freely express their views, participate in democratic life, and choose their political representatives. However, false information has increased in recent years and can affect various aspects of our lives: health, public security, trust in democracy, climate and the environment, migration and fundamental rights and values that underpin our societies.

European Commission: Joint Research Centre, Smillie, L. and Scharfbillig, M., Trustworthy public communication – How public communicators can strengthen our democracies, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

This report provides evidence-based insights and recommendations on how public communicators can strengthen democracies by navigating (new) information ecosystems in ways that earn the trust of citizens. At a time when trust in government is increasingly important to democracy, the report aims to support public administrations in tackling the societal challenges in communication faced around the globe. The report combines state-of-the-art scientific knowledge and insights from experts, new empirical research on the moralisation of policies and values-targeted communication strategies, and input from citizens on this topic to provide practical guidance to policymakers and public administration communications professionals.

European Parliament, Directorate-General for External Policies of the Union, Fridman, O., Baudais, V., et al., European Parliamentary, 2023.

With more and more disinformation campaigns targeting the EU and its institutions in recent years, Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) missions and operations have also been subject to such attacks. While this analysis did not identify systematic disinformation campaigns against the EU CSDP missions and operations, it does not imply that the CSDP missions and operations are not on the radar of the malign actors creating and disseminating disinformation. In fact, their activities are occasionally used by malign actors to feed into their campaigns intended to undermine the EU and its allies, which constitute the main target of these campaigns.

European Parliament, Directorate-General for Internal Policies of the Union, Botero Arcila, B. and Griffin, R., European Parliamentary, 2023.

This study, commissioned by the European Parliament’s Policy Department for Citizens’ Rights and Constitutional Affairs at the request of the LIBE Committee, examines risks that contemporary social media - focusing in particular on the most widely-used platforms - present for democracy, the rule of law and fundamental rights. The study focuses on the governance of online content, provides an assessment of existing EU law and industry practices which address these risks, and evaluates potential opportunities and risks to fundamental rights and other democratic values.

European Union Agency for Cybersecurity, Magonara, E. and Malatras, A., European Union Agency for Cybersecurity, 2022.

The EU Agency for Cybersecurity (ENISA) and the European External Action Service (EEAS) have joined forces to study and analyse the threat landscape concerning Foreign Information Manipulation and Interference (FIMI) and disinformation. The concept of FIMI has been proposed by the EEAS, as a response to the call of the European Democracy Action Plan for a further refinement of the definitions around disinformation. Although disinformation is a prominent part of FIMI, FIMI puts emphasis on manipulative behaviour, as opposed to the truthfulness of the content being delivered. In light of broader hybrid threats that cross different domains, one of the main motivations behind this report is to identify ways to bring the cybersecurity and counter-FIMI communities closer together. The ambition is to provide an input to the on-going and ever-pressing discussion on the nature and dynamics of information manipulation and interference, including disinformation, and on how to collectively respond to this phenomenon