European Commission, Directorate-General for Defence Industry and Space, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

he resurgence of war in Europe and rising tensions have created a new urgency for the European Union (EU) to better address existing and foreseeable security and defence challenges. In the defence sector, three issues stand out as critical: innovating, producing key systems and securing value chains. In particular, the European defence industry is called upon to develop the next generation of operational capabilities and the required technologies to provide additional production capacity and to build up stocks while mitigating critical dependencies along the defence value chains, including the financial and economic stability of the industrial supply network. Increasing European dual-use technologies’ shares in global markets is also paramount. At the same time, European small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) and mid-sized companies need to translate their innovation potential into viable capabilities for security and defence actors, while improved financial frameworks must support this transition.

European Commission: Directorate-General for Internal Market, Industry, Entrepreneurship and SMEs, Aerospace & defence ecosystem – Robotics and drones, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

Robotics, which includes drones, is a dual-use technology with civil and defence applications. Civil applications include industrial robots (the socalled cobots) and service robots in logistics, agriculture, and cleaning services. Exoskeletons (or wearable robotics) are increasingly important in civil healthcare and defence applications. In defence, both manned and unmanned types of robots, including drones are used. Drones are used for intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance missions. They help the soldiers on the ground and sitting far away to plan their next move.

European Commission: Directorate-General for Internal Market, Industry, Entrepreneurship and SMEs, Aerospace & defence ecosystem – Space system, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024

Space systems technologies, specifically space launchers and satellites, allow the EU to protect its space assets, defend its interests, deter hostile activities in space and strengthen its strategic posture and autonomy. Today, more than 65 countries in the world are involved in space activities, but only a few of these states (mainly the US, China, Russia, Western Europe, Japan and India) have the industrial and technical capacity to manufacture their satellites and launchers and operate them. The competitors of the EU in this field are, at the same time, also the main suppliers of critical and strategic (raw) materials and components for space systems.

European Defence Agency, Annual report 2023, European Commission, 2024.

Russia's war of aggression against Ukraine continues to devastate the country and threaten the European Union. High intensity, state-to-state war is testing the EU's capacity to defend itself and its values, while Ukraine’s emergence as an independent, prosperous country is critical for the broader European security order. The EU and notably the European Defence Agency are accelerating efforts in support of Ukraine, and for the defence of Europe. While EU defence cooperation has suffered from ambiguous assumptions in the past, the war in Ukraine has brought new momentum to our common endeavour.

European Union Institute for Security Studies, 2023.

The EU and its Member States are undertaking the biggest rearmament effort in Europe since the 1950s. Many make the case for building weapons together, arguing that it would not only be cheaper but also strengthen the European defence industry by consolidating into fewer producers to generate economies of scale.

Council of the European Union, General Secretariat of the Council, Publications Office of the European Union, 2023.

By grabbing the headlines over recent weeks, the Wagner company, under the leadership of Yevgeny Prigozhin has helped bring Private Military Companies (PMCs) from out of the shadows. While the phenomenon of PMCs is not new, the last three decades have seen a significant increase in the outsourcing of military and security functions to private actors. The role of PMCs can range widely, from ensuring the physical protection of infrastructure abroad or the close protection of VIPs to performing critical combat tasks such as special operations.

Nevada Joan Lee, European University Institute, 2024.

This thesis explores the rapidly changing European security landscape following the Trump administration and the Russian invasion of Ukraine. It explores the implications for U.S. market share and the transatlantic relationship in light of recent initiatives passed by the European Commission that aim to bolster the European defense industry. I argue that these defense industry initiatives, driven by external pressures and the pursuit of strategic autonomy, will likely lead to a decrease in U.S. defense firms' market share in the short term but are unlikely to be primary factors in weakening the transatlantic relationship.

European Union Institute for Security Studies, Andersson, J., Publications Office of the European Union, 2023.

After many years of underinvestment in defence, EU Member States are rearming, but much criticism has been levelled at the slow pace. Many argue that more European cooperation on defence acquisition and arms procurement would not only make buying arms faster and cheaper, but also strengthen the European defence industrial base by consolidating demand. But why are EU Member States buying so few weapons together, and is buying together always better? While the track record is mixed, there may in fact be more European armaments cooperation than is often believed. These can be categorised in a typology of at least six different options for collaboration. By acknowledging the variety of collaboration, focusing on the desired outcomes rather than processes, and using existing tools and structures, the EU and its Member States may be able to better collaborate on defence acquisition and arms procurement, where and how it makes most sense.

European Parliament, Directorate-General for Parliamentary Research Services, Karakas, C., European Parliament, 2021.

Offering an overview of cooperation in the EU defence industry, this paper aims to answer the following questions: What EU action has been taken and which laws apply? Is the European Defence Fund a game-changer? What are the achievements of and challenges facing Europe's defence industry? What role can the future combat air system play? Where does the European Parliament stand? With these initiatives and instruments in place, will the European Union be able to successfully enhance economic cooperation in the defence sector?

European Commission, Directorate-General for Economic and Financial Affairs, Cepparulo, A., Pasimeni, P., Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

After more than 60 years of peace, Europe faced a watershed moment in its security, in February 2022. Following a brief overview of how years of underinvestment and fragmentation have left many weaknesses in EU defence, this study analyses the evolution of the EU defence strategy, the contribution by the EU budget and by national budgets. Finally, the paper investigates to what extent the recent increase of defence spending can have a positive effect on growth, by examining the link between defence spending and economic growth, on the basis of the existing literature.

European Commission: Service for Foreign Policy Instruments, Elaborating a strategic trade system of dual-use items – Experiences from the European Union, Morocco, Philippines, Serbia, Singapore and Ukraine, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

Publication metadata
The present publication intends to illustrate and analyse examples of dual-use trade control systems that address these questions in a balanced and efficient manner. It reflects the experiences shared by experts from the European Union and five of its partner countries under the EU P2P Programme, i.e. Morocco, the Philippines, Serbia, Singapore and Ukraine, and builds on their regular and enduring exchanges on export control best practices. This document is the result of dialogues with partners, an important contribution to the mutual understanding of various responses to common challenges and a tool for strengthening collective action against the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction. The objective of this manual is to offer, through the experiences of the EU and several selected countries, a comprehensive understanding of the elaboration process that a state must initiate to establish or strengthen its strategic trade control (STC) system. The manual is structured into three main parts.

European Commission: Directorate-General for Migration and Home Affairs, Persson, A., Worth, M. and Jeney, P., High-risk areas of corruption in the EU – A mapping and in-depth analysis, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

Corruption encompasses a vast collection of abusive, subversive and sometimes violent crimes that harm virtually all portions and levels of society. It radiates outward from the initial act to damage public institutions, companies, communities and families. Eventually, corruption touches and affects people personally – whether it is obvious or not. Corruption is estimated to cost the EU up to EUR 990 billion per year – more than enough to end world hunger and provide electricity, safe water and sanitation to everyone everywhere.

European Union Institute for Security Studies, Andersson, J., Ditrych, O., Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

The EU should expand its support to the development of Ukraine’s defence industry to sustain the country’s fighting power, reduce its dependencies on Western aid and boost its domestic economy. Two broad areas demand particular attention. As a matter of urgency Ukraine needs investment in local production capacities and repair and maintenance facilities closer to the battlefield. At the same time, Ukraine’s defence industry should integrate into the European Defence Technological and Industrial Base (EDTIB).

European Union Institute for Security Studies, Andersson, J. and Simon, S., Minding the drone gap – Drone warfare and the EU, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

As the EU Member States ramp up arms production in support of Ukraine and for their own defence, the proliferation of armed drones and countermeasures is a growing concern. This poses important questions for the future of warfare and the European defence industry. The impact of drones varies significantly however depending on their type, highlighting the need for a clear definition of the term. Furthermore, the effectiveness of countermeasures significantly influences the extent to which drones can impact military operations and civilian infrastructure. The EU can support Ukraine's drone warfare efforts and build its own drone and counter-drone capabilities by leveraging the Union’s strengths: a strong and innovative industrial base, close cooperation with Ukraine, and a burgeoning EU defence industry policy.

European Court of Auditors, Opinion 02/2024 (pursuant to Article 322, TFEU) concerning the proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council establishing the European Defence Industry Programme and a framework of measures to ensure the timely availability and supply of defence products (EDIP), Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

Faced with the return of high-intensity warfare on the European continent with Russia’s war of aggression against Ukraine in 2022, the EU has moved defence high up the agenda. Following the Versailles Declaration of 11 March 2022, in May 2022 the Commission and the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy adopted the Joint Communication on defence investment gaps analysis and way forward.

European Parliament: Directorate-General for Internal Policies of the Union, Felbermayr, G. and Pekanov, A., Pan-European public goods – Rationale, financing and governance, European Parliament, 2024.

Amidst a changed global environment and with the goal to defend its geopolitical weight, the EU should provide public goods with EU value added, so that efficiency gains can be achieved at the EU level. We propose an expanded EU budget to serve the dual role of more automatic stabilisation and the provision of EU public goods, where the European Parliament should have an enhanced role in setting investment priorities. We discuss three such areas of investment priority – infrastructure, defence and security, as well as research and development.

European Court of Auditors, Special report 10, 2023, Publications Office of the European Union, 2023.

The Preparatory Action on Defence Research (PADR) was designed as a precursor programme of the European Defence Fund (EDF). This is the ECA’s first audit in the defence area and assessed whether the PADR properly prepared the EU to significantly increase its defence spending through the EDF. We conclude that, while some lessons were learned, the value of the PADR as a testbed for increasing EU defence spending was reduced due to the time constraints and limited results available. When the EDF was launched, most PADR projects were still ongoing. We make several recommendations to help the EDF reach its objectives, in particular to design a long-term strategy to increase the use of the technology developed in the EU defence sector.

European Union Satellite Centre, SatCen – Annual report 2023, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

The EU Satellite Centre, the EU’s geospatial intelligence agency, offers specialised analysis services covering space, security, and defence. Established in 1992 as part of the Western European Union, it became an EU agency in January 2002, providing analysis derived from satellite imagery. Its services are tailored to the EU and its Member States, as will as international partners like the UN, OPCW and the OSCE, aiding political decision-making and facilitating civilian and military actions in the CFSP and CSDP.

European Parliament, Directorate-General for External Policies of the Union, Mölling, C., Hellmonds, S., Csernatoni, R. et al., European Parliament, 2024.

The briefings contained in this volume provide an overview of the challenges ahead in four key areas of EU security and defence policy: defence industrial policy (‘Sovereign: A dynamic defence industrial and technological base’), EU rapid response capabilities (‘Capable: From “paper tigers” to rapid and effective presence on the ground’), technology and innovative in the area of defence (‘Innovative: Keeping the technological edge in the area of security and defence’) and the fight against certain types of hybrid warfare (‘Responsive: Hybrid warfare and the implications of the Wagner model’). Together, they provide an outlook on the major questions that will confront the European Parliament in its 10th legislative term.

European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Versino, C., Heine, P., et al., Publications Office of the European Union, 2021.

A Strategic Trade Atlas was developed to promote understanding of global trade flows of strategic goods, i.e., goods of militarily strategic value, including dual-use goods. This Atlas provides macroscopic graphical representations of global trade flows classified under Harmonized System (HS) codes associated by the World Customs Organization with strategic commodities. The profiles provide information-rich representations of strategic commodity-related imports and exports classified under these HS codes, based on data originally reported to and made publicly available by the United Nations Statistical Division, then processed to reconcile trade asymmetries by the Centre d’Etudes Prospectives et d’Informations Internationales. This and other high quality, statistically relevant data sources exist, but are largely untapped resources for strategic trade control purposes. Efforts to promote and facilitate use of trade data should enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of strategic trade control efforts.

European University Institute and Baldauff, N., Why Japan’s defence technology cooperation with Europe deserves attention, European University Institute, 2024.

Due to self-imposed restrictions on joint defence equipment production and technology cooperation, Japan has long been an isolated player in the global defence industry. However, as it is facing the most severe and complex strategic environment in recent years and it has dwindling domestic defence industrial bases, Japan is fundamentally revamping its approach to defence production and technology cooperation. A key aspect of this transformation is a fundamental reinforcement of Japan’s defence capabilities, which is crucial to achieve its national security objectives.