European Commission, Directorate-General for Communications Networks, Content and Technology (CNECT), 2024.

A study commissioned by the European Commission highlights the significant potential of Artificial Intelligence (AI) to improve public sector services across the EU. The report emphasizes that AI can enhance citizen-government interactions, boost analytical capabilities, and increase efficiency in key areas such as healthcare, mobility, e-Government, and education. These sectors are identified as among the most ready for large-scale AI deployment, with applications ranging from autonomous vehicles and smart traffic systems to AI-driven healthcare solutions and education technologies.

European Commission: Directorate-General for Digital Services, Fitsilis, F. and Mikros, G., AI-based solutions for legislative drafting in the EU – Summary report, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

This publication provides an overview of the results of a European Union (EU) funded study entitled “Overview of smart functionalities in drafting legislation in LEOS”. The full study has been published on the European Commission's (EC) Joinup platform and centres on the concept of smart functionalities in law-making, i.e., advanced Information (and Communication) Technologies (I[C]T) services that assist legal drafters and policy developers in their daily work. The underlying research was conducted in view of the development of an “augmented LEOS”, an open-source solution developed by the EC for drafting legislation.

European Data Protection Supervisor, AI Act Regulation (EU) 2024/1689 – Regulation (EU) 2024/1689 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 June 2024 laying down harmonised rules on artificial intelligence and amending Regulations (EC) No 300/2008, (EU) No 167/2013, (EU) No 168/2013, (EU) 2018/858, (EU) 2018/1139 and (EU) 2019/2144 and Directives 2014/90/EU, (EU) 2016/797 and (EU) 2020/1828 (Artificial Intelligence Act) (Text with EEA relevance), Publications Office of the European Union, 2025, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2804/4225375

The purpose of this Regulation is to improve the functioning of the internal market and promote the uptake of human-centric and trustworthy artificial intelligence (AI), while ensuring a high level of protection of health, safety, fundamental rights enshrined in the Charter, including democracy, the rule of law and environmental protection, against the harmful effects of AI systems in the Union and supporting innovation.

Griesinger, C. B., Reina, V., Panidis, D. and Chassaigne, H., AI evidence pathway for operationalising trustworthy AI in health – An ontology unfolding ethical principles into translational and fundamental concepts, Publications Office of the European Union, 2025, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2760/8107037

Health, inherently rich in multi-modal data, could profit significantly from artificial intelligence (AI). Yet, adoption of AI in health remains challenging due to three key issues: (1) The “trust barrier”: while a plethora of documents based on AI (ethical) principles are available, there remains a significant interpretation gap between high-level desiderata and detailed actionable concepts. This hampers determination of both type and level of evidence that would render AI tools sufficiently trustworthy for adoption and integration into use contexts and environments. This is further complicated by the heterogeneous landscape of principles used by various organisations despite robust evidence on a convergence towards ca 10 principles.

European Commission: Directorate-General for Communications Networks, Content and Technology and Centre for European Policy Studies (CEPS), Analysis of EU AI Office – Stakeholder consultations – Defining AI systems and prohibited applications – Final study report, Publications Office of the European Union, 2025, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2759/6218665

This report analyses the results of stakeholder consultations conducted by the EU AI Office regarding two critical aspects of AI regulation: the definition of AI systems and prohibited AI applications (European Commission, 2024). This report synthesises stakeholder feedback to 88 questions and informs the development of clear, practical, and effective AI regulatory frameworks. The report was drafted by the Centre for European Policy Studies (CEPS).

European Commission: Directorate-General for Digital Services, Brizuela, A., Combetto, M., Kotoglou, S., Galasso, G. et al., Analysis of the generative AI landscape in the European public sector, Publications Office of the European Union, 2025, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2799/0409819

This report provides a broad description of the adoption of generative AI (or GenAI) within the European public sector. It focuses on (i) guidelines and policies adopted within administrations to regulate the use of this emerging technology; and (ii) the multiple applications and use cases found in the Public Sector Tech Watch observatory. The public sector is quickly adopting GenAI solutions, but administrations are facing daily challenges related to implementation processes and effective public-private collaborations. Administrations are also facing other challenges in their regulatory eff o r t s , primarily centred around human oversight; accountability; the importance of data protection; and governance, safety, fairness and transparency.

European Data Protection Supervisor, Publications Office of the European Union, 2025.

The EDPS Annual Report 2024 is about acting for the future of data protection, preparing for the diverse possibilities and risks that the digital landscape presents.

European Parliament: Directorate-General for External Policies of the Union and Ünver, A., Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

This in-depth analysis (IDA) explores the most prominent actors, cases and techniques of algorithmic authoritarianism together with the legal, regulatory and diplomatic framework related to AI-based biases as well as deliberate misuses. With the world leaning heavily towards digital transformation, AI’s use in policy, economic and social decision-making has introduced alarming trends in repressive and authoritarian agendas. Such misuse grows ever more relevant to the European Parliament, resonating with its commitment to safeguarding human rights in the context of digital trans-formation.

European Parliament: Directorate-General for Citizens’ Rights, Justice and Institutional Affairs and Bertolini, A., Artificial intelligence and civil liability – A European perspective, European Parliament, 2025, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2861/0075079

This study, commissioned by the European Parliament's Policy Department for Justice, Civil Liberties and Institutional Affairs, critically analyses the EU's evolving approach to regulating civil liability for artificial intelligence systems.

Europol, Assessing technology in law enforcement – A method for ethical decision-making, Publications Office of the European Union, 2025.

Europol was mandated in 2019 by the EU Justice and Home Affairs ministers to create an Innovation Lab to support the law enforcement community in the area of innovation. The Lab aims to identify, promote and develop concrete innovative solutions in support of the EU Member States’ operational work. These will help investigators and analysts to make the most of the opportunities offered by new technology to avoid duplication of work, create synergies and pool resources. The activities of the Lab are directly linked to the strategic priorities as laid out in Europol Strategy 2020+, which states that Europol shall be at the forefront of law enforcement innovation and research.

European Union Intellectual Property Office, The development of generative artificial intelligence from a copyright perspective, European Union Intellectual Property Office, 2025, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2814/3893780

This study is designed to clarify how GenAI systems interact with copyright – technically, legally, and economically. It examines how copyright-protected content is used in training models, what the applicable EU legal framework is, how creators can reserve their rights through opt-out mechanisms, and what technologies exist to mark or identify AI-generated outputs. It also explores licensing opportunities and the potential emergence of a functioning market for AI training data. Although the study is intended for experts in the field, it lays the groundwork for developing clear and accessible informational resources for a broader audience.

European Union Aviation Safety Agency and Berlenga, I., Ethics for AI in aviation – Aviation professionals survey results 2024/2025, European Union Aviation Safety Agency, 2025, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2822/7047867

The analysis presented in this review provides an overview of the activities carried out in 2024 by the European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) in response to safety recommendations, as well as a comparison with historical data. This review also highlights a range of safety issues and safety improvement actions that will be of interest to the European aviation community and the wider public.

European Commission: Directorate-General for Research and Innovation, Renda, A., Balland, P., Soete, L. and Christophilopoulos, E., A European model for artificial intelligence, Publications Office of the European Union, 2025.

There is a consensus on the urgent need for a cohesive European response to the challenges posed by Artificial Intelligence (AI). Increased investment, policy alignment and skill development, are crucial to leverage the emergence of this ground-breaking technology of AI for societal good. The potential of AI in science, government, and industry, underlines the need for the EU public sector to use its unique position in developing and supporting a strategic, transborder and cooperative approach to AI development in Europe, in a unique European model for AI.

European Commission: European Education and Culture Executive Agency, Explainable AI in education – Fostering human oversight and shared responsibility – By the European Digital Education Hub’s Squad on artificial intelligence in education, Publications Office of the European Union, 2025, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2797/6780469

This report provides an in-depth analysis of explainable artificial intelligence (XAI) in the context of education, with a focus on promoting human oversight, ethical governance, and shared responsibility. It is the outcome of the European Digital Education Hub’s squad (online working group) on XAI in education. The report defines and distinguishes key concepts – transparency, interpretability, explainability, and understandability – positioning them along technical and human-centered dimensions essential for building trustworthy AI systems.

European University Institute and Gori, P., General-purpose GenAI chatbots – Preserving the public interest, European University Institute, 2025, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2870/5121057

Generative Artificial Intelligence (GenAI) tools – in particular, general-purpose GenAI chatbots – are now widely used by society. The training methodology and the quality of the data on which they are trained impacts their outputs. These tools are trained on large sets of mainly public data, and their outputs (i.e., responses provided to the user) depend on the prediction of the next word based on the statistically most-used word in a given context (they do not possess knowledge or reasoning capacities per se).

European Parliament: Directorate-General for Citizens’ Rights, Justice and Institutional Affairs and Lucchi, N., Generative AI and copyright – Training, creation, regulation, European Parliament, 2025, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2861/9120512

This study examines how generative AI challenges core principles of EU copyright law. It highlights the legal mismatch between AI training practices and current text and data mining exceptions, and the uncertain status of AI-generated content. These developments pose structural risks for the future of creativity in Europe, where a rich and diverse cultural heritage depends on the continued protection and fair remuneration of authors. The report calls for clear rules on input/output distinctions, harmonised opt-out mechanisms, transparency obligations, and equitable licensing models. To balance innovation and authors’ rights, the European Parliament is expected to lead reforms that reflect the evolving realities of creativity, authorship, and machine-generated expression. This study was commissioned by the European Parliament’s Policy Department for Justice, Civil Liberties and Institutional Affairs at the request of the Committee on Legal Affairs.

Abendroth-Dias, K., Vespe, M., Arias Cabarcos, P., Kotsev, A., Bacco, M. et al., Generative AI outlook report – Exploring the intersection of technology, society, and policy, Vespe, M.(editor), Kotsev, A.(editor), Van Bavel, R.(editor) and Navajas Cawood, E.(editor), Publications Office of the European Union, 2025, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2760/1109679

This Outlook report, prepared by the European Commission’s Joint Research Centre (JRC), examines the transformative role of Generative AI (GenAI) with a specific emphasis on the European Union. It highlights the potential of GenAI for innovation, productivity, and societal change. GenAI is a disruptive technology due to its capability of producing human-like content at an unprecedented scale. As such, it holds multiple opportunities for advancements across various sectors, including healthcare, education, science, and creative industries. At the same time, GenAI also presents significant challenges, including the possibility to amplify misinformation, bias, labour disruption, and privacy concerns. All those issues are cross-cutting and therefore, the rapid development of GenAI requires a multidisciplinary approach to fully understand its implications.

Publications Office of the European Union, Graux, H., Gryffroy, P., Gad-Nowak, M. and Boghaert, L., Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

The general impact of artificial intelligence (AI) systems on businesses, governments and the global economy is currently a hot topic. This isn’t surprising, considering that AI is believed to have the potential to bring about radical, unprecedented changes in the way people live and work. The transformative potential of AI originates to a large extent from its ability to analyse data at scale, and to notice and internalise patterns and correlations in that data that humans (or fully deterministic algorithms) would struggle to identify. In simpler terms: modern AIs flourish especially if they can be trained on large volumes of data, and when they are used in relation to large volumes of data.

Purificato, E., Bili, D., Jungnickel, R., Ruiz-Serra, V., Fabiani, J. et al., The role of artificial intelligence in scientific research – A science for policy, European perspective, Publications Office of the European Union, 2025, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2760/7217497

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is fundamentally transforming the scientific process across all stages, from hypothesis generation and experimental design to data analysis, peer review and dissemination of results. In many research fields, such as the examined protein structure prediction, materials discovery and computational humanities, AI accelerates discovery, fosters interdisciplinary collaboration and enhances reproducibility, while improving access to advanced analytical and computational capabilities.

European Commission: Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion and Visionary Analytics, Study exploring the context, challenges, opportunities, and trends in algorithmic management in the workplace – Annexes to the final report, Publications Office of the European Union, 2025, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2767/0610147

A comprehensive mapping and overview of the existing and ongoing academic literature was carried out in the areas of AM, AI, and digitisation in the workplace. To ensure a wider range of insights and provide a more comprehensive understanding, the literature was collected in a number of different languages. The members of the core team and national experts gathered the relevant literature, with the former concentrating on English-language literature and the latter on the literature in EU languages.

European Commission: Directorate-General for Health and Food Safety, EEIG, Open Evidence and PwC, Study on the deployment of AI in healthcare – Final report, Publications Office of the European Union, 2025, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2875/2169577

Present day healthcare systems face several complex challenges, including rising demand due to an aging population, increasing prevalence of chronic and complex conditions, rising costs, and shortages in the healthcare workforce. Artificial intelligence (AI) has the potential to address some of these by improving operational efficiency, reducing administrative burdens, and enhancing diagnosis and treatment pathways. Despite the promise and availability AI-based tools in the market, their deployment in clinical practice is slow.