European Agency for Safety and Health at Work and Urzí Brancati, M., Digital technologies at work and psychosocial risks : evidence and implications for occupational safety and health, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

This report provides a comprehensive analysis of the implications of digitalisation for occupational safety and health (OSH) regarding psychosocial risk factors based on the findings of EU-OSHA publications. Drawing from over one hundred documents, including reports, policy briefs, discussion papers, case studies and results from the OSH Pulse survey 2022, the report outlines how digital technologies can result in work-related psychosocial risks and mental health issues. The analysis is broken down by type of technology and tasks that the technology is able to perform. The report presents the analysis of implications of digitalisation in terms of psychosocial risks according to the five key areas identified in EU-OSHA’s research programme on OSH and digitalisation (2020-2023): advanced robotics and artificial intelligence (AI), smart digital systems, digital platform work, remote working technologies and artificial intelligence for worker management (AIWM).

Eurofound, Riso, S., Adăscăliței, D. and Rodríguez Contreras, R., Ethical digitalisation at work : from theory to practice, Publications Office of the European Union, 2023.

Automation and digitisation technologies, including artificial intelligence, are rapidly evolving and becoming increasingly powerful and pervasive. The full range of their effects in the workplace is yet to be seen. It is, however, important not only to explore the ethical implications of digital technologies and the effects of such technologies on working conditions as they emerge, but also to anticipate any unintended effects that raise new ethical challenges. Using a variety of research methods and building on previous research on the digital workplace, this report examines the many ramifications of digital technologies in the workplace, looking at the fundamental rights and ethical principles most at stake and the areas of working conditions most likely to be affected.

European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Croce, V. and Hoendervanger, J., The role of individual differences in flexible ways of working : creating person-environment fit as an individual team, and organisation, Croce, V.(editor), Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

Due to a combination of results-oriented management styles, HR policies, innovations in information and communication technologies (ICT), corporate real estate (CRE), and facilities management (FM), advanced ICT skills, and raised awareness of personal needs and preferences, knowledge workers are increasingly eager to, able to, and allowed to work flexibly with regard to time, place and tools. Time-spatial job crafting is central to creating Person-Environment fit in this context, implying that personal needs and abilities – which typically differ across workers – should be aligned to the flexible work environment by developing divergent personal work styles.

European Commission, Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion, Study exploring the social, economic and legal context and trends of telework and the right to disconnect, in the context of digitalisation and the future of work, during and beyond the COVID-19 pandemic : annex 1 : methodology, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

This section presents the methodology of consultation activities. It also discusses the methodological choices made, in terms of the selection of respondents and outreach strategies.

European Commission, Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion, Study exploring the social, economic and legal context and trends of telework and the right to disconnect, in the context of digitalisation and the future of work, during and beyond the COVID-19 pandemic : annex 2 : analysis of case law, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

The Working Time Directive (WTD) provides a definition of working time as “any period during which the worker is working, at the employer’s disposal and carrying out his activity or duties, in accordance with national laws and/or practice” (WTD, Article 2). Rest time is any period which is not working time. The CJEU has confirmed this binary approach in its decisions, according to which working time and rest time are mutually exclusive 1. Thus, a worker’s standby periods must be classified either as ‘working time’ or as a ‘rest period’ for the purpose of applying Directive 2003/88, as the latter does not provide for any intermediate category. Case law from the EU Court of Justice on standby time provides important criteria to clarify this aspect.

European Commission, Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion, Study exploring the social, economic and legal context and trends of telework and the right to disconnect, in the context of digitalisation and the future of work, during and beyond the COVID-19 pandemic : annex 3 : national regulation of working time, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

Working time regulation can achieve some of the goals that a right to disconnect would provide. The protection of workers’ health and safety is the objective of the Working Time Directive (Directive 2003/88; WTD), which assumes that lengthy working hours and a lack of opportunities for rest pose risks to workers’ physical and psychosocial health (Bell et al., 2021)1.

European Commission, Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion, Study exploring the social, economic and legal context and trends of telework and the right to disconnect, in the context of digitalisation and the future of work, during and beyond the COVID-19 pandemic : annex 4 : synopsis report covering all stakeholder consultations, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

The Consultation work package comprised the following consultation activities: Interviews with national stakeholders; Expert interviews; Employee and employer surveys; and Workshops,

European Commission, Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion, Study exploring the social, economic and legal context and trends of telework and the right to disconnect, in the context of digitalisation and the future of work, during and beyond the COVID-19 pandemic : annex 5 : outline of case studies, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

Case studies - this study was initiated as one of the follow-up actions to the European Parliament resolution of 21 January 2021, which called upon the Commission to propose a Directive establishing standards and conditions regarding the right to disconnect, and a legislative framework providing minimum requirements for telework. To this end, the study aims to provide evidence and analysis to support the Commission in its reflections on the appropriate response to the resolution of the European Parliament.

European Commission, Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion, Study exploring the social, economic and legal context and trends of telework and the right to disconnect, in the context of digitalisation and the future of work, during and beyond the COVID-19 pandemic : annex 6 : country fiches, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

This study was initiated as one of the follow-up actions to the European Parliament resolution of 21 January 2021, which called upon the Commission to propose a Directive establishing standards and conditions regarding the right to disconnect, and a legislative framework providing minimum requirements for telework. To this end, the study aims to provide evidence and analysis to support the Commission in its reflections on the appropriate response to the resolution of the European Parliament.

European Commission, Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion, Study exploring the social, economic and legal context and trends of telework and the right to disconnect, in the context of digitalisation and the future of work, during and beyond the COVID-19 pandemic : annex 8 : factual summary of each consultation activity, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

This study was initiated as one of the follow-up actions to the European Parliament resolution of 21 January 2021, which called upon the Commission to propose a Directive establishing standards and conditions regarding the right to disconnect, and a legislative framework providing minimum requirements for telework. To this end, the study aims to provide evidence and analysis to support the Commission in its reflections on the appropriate response to the resolution of the European Parliament.

European Commission, Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion, Study exploring the social, economic and legal context and trends of telework and the right to disconnect, in the context of digitalisation and the future of work, during and beyond the COVID-19 pandemic : annex 9 : questionnaires, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

This study was initiated as one of the follow-up actions to the European Parliament resolution of 21 January 2021, which called upon the Commission to propose a Directive establishing standards and conditions regarding the right to disconnect, and a legislative framework providing minimum requirements for telework. To this end, the study aims to provide evidence and analysis to support the Commission in its reflections on the appropriate response to the resolution of the European Parliament.

European Commission, Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion, Study exploring the social, economic and legal context and trends of telework and the right to disconnect, in the context of digitalisation and the future of work, during and beyond the COVID-19 pandemic : annex 10 : deep dive, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

While teleworking (and in particular, cross-border teleworking) has existed long before the lockdowns of 2020, COVID-19 cemented a growing shift in lifestyle and work organisation that shows little sign of reversal. These trends include, among others, the increasing digitalisation of work, changes in workplace culture and organisation, and associated shifts in worker lifestyles and preferences. The rise of telework more broadly has also led to growing incidences of cross-border telework, where workers perform work enabled by ICTs across EU borders. These working arrangements have distinct consequences for both workers and employers, including administrative issues (e.g. taxation and social security coordination) as well as implications for professional development and work-life balance. Long-term cross-border teleworking may also present broader impacts on hiring patterns, regional development, or even changing the nature of work itself.

European Commission, Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion, Study exploring the social, economic and legal context and trends of telework and the right to disconnect, in the context of digitalisation and the future of work, during and beyond the COVID-19 pandemic : annex 11 : environmental issues, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

This annex covers various pieces of research dealing with the implications of telework on environmental issues, with particular attention to its contribution to tackling climate change.

European Commission, Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion, Study exploring the social, economic and legal context and trends of telework and the right to disconnect, in the context of digitalisation and the future of work, during and beyond the COVID-19 pandemic : final report, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

This study was initiated as one of the follow-up actions to the European Parliament resolution of 21 January 2021, which called upon the Commission to propose a Directive establishing standards and conditions regarding the right to disconnect, and a legislative framework providing minimum requirements for telework. To this end, the study aims to provide evidence and analysis to support the Commission in its reflections on the appropriate response to the resolution of the European Parliament.