European Commission, Directorate-General for Communications Networks, Content and Technology (CNECT), 2024.

A study commissioned by the European Commission highlights the significant potential of Artificial Intelligence (AI) to improve public sector services across the EU. The report emphasizes that AI can enhance citizen-government interactions, boost analytical capabilities, and increase efficiency in key areas such as healthcare, mobility, e-Government, and education. These sectors are identified as among the most ready for large-scale AI deployment, with applications ranging from autonomous vehicles and smart traffic systems to AI-driven healthcare solutions and education technologies.

European Commission: Directorate-General for Economic and Financial Affairs, Simons, W., Turrini, A. and Vivian, L., Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

This discussion paper presents the key features of Artificial Intelligence (AI), highlighting the main differences with respect to previous IT and digital technologies. It presents the most relevant facts about AI diffusion across EU countries, and discusses the main economic implications, focusing especially on its impact on productivity and labour markets. While AI presents a formidable opportunity, it also entails major challenges, with implications for policy. This paper focuses on policies to remove bottlenecks to AI development and adoption, regulatory policies, competition policy, policies to deal with labour market and distributive implications.

European Commission: Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion, Artificial intelligence and the future of work – Eurobarometer report, Publications Office of the European Union, 2025.

This Special Eurobarometer survey towards automation and AI in working life. More particularly, the study covers the following topics: General perceptions of the impact of digital technologies; Proficiency with digital technologies; Awareness of and experience with digital technologies, including AI, in the workplace; Attitudes towards these digital technologies and their use in the workplace.

Cedefop, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

Achieving the EU's digital transition objectives and policy targets is expected to create significant additional employment in key sectors such as computer programming, research and development, and telecommunications. As digital transformation requires substantial training, job opportunities will also emerge in wholesale and retail trade, and in non-market services, which includes the education and training sector. The productivity-enhancing eect of AI fosters versatility among workers and enables them to engage in more fulfilling activities.

European Commission: Directorate-General for Research and Innovation, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

Human centricity is one of the three pillars of Industry 5.0. This Roadmap shows how industrial innovation ecosystem stakeholders can take a leading role in achieving human-centric outcomes in technology development and adoption, such as improving workers’ safety and wellbeing, upskilling or learning. There are significant opportunities to capture the transformative potential of ground-breaking technologies like artificial intelligence and virtual worlds through more human-centric and user-driven design approaches. The Roadmap recommends that policy makers support integrating human-centricity considerations in education and training, R&I funding and in company training and innovation strategies

Eurofound, Riso, S., Adăscăliței, D., et al., Publications Office of the European Union, 2023.

Automation and digitisation technologies, including artificial intelligence, are rapidly evolving and becoming increasingly powerful and pervasive. The full range of their effects in the workplace is yet to be seen. It is, however, important not only to explore the ethical implications of digital technologies and the effects of such technologies on working conditions as they emerge, but also to anticipate any unintended effects that raise new ethical challenges. Using a variety of research methods and building on previous research on the digital workplace, this report examines the many ramifications of digital technologies in the workplace, looking at the fundamental rights and ethical principles most at stake and the areas of working conditions most likely to be affected.

Riso, S., Adăscăliței, D., López Forés, L., et al., Publications Office of the European Union, 2022.

Digitisation and automation technologies, including artificial intelligence (AI), can affect working conditions in a variety of ways and their use in the workplace raises a host of new ethical concerns. Recently, the policy debate surrounding these concerns has become more prominent and has increasingly focused on AI. This report maps relevant European and national policy and regulatory initiatives.

Cedefop, Publications Office of the European Union, 2023.

As the European Union navigates an era of rapid digital transfor-mation, the demand for digital skills has never been higher, and it will keep growing in the next decade. This policy brief sheds new light on the evolving landscape of digital skill requirements in the EU-27, using Cedefop analysis of online job advertisements. The evidence in this policy brief showcases the pivotal role of digital skills in economic development and global competitiveness. It also points towards the need to accelerate the implementation of digital policy and strategy. Upand reskilling the workforce, investing in the skills of teachers and trainers and modernising education and training systems will help ensure the digital revolution will benefit all citizens.

European Commission - Directorate-General for Research and Innovation, Dixson-Declève, S., Dunlop, et al., Publications Office of the European Union, 2023.

The reports provide a comparative analysis and bring examples of relevant national and regional policy measures in the EU. This report focuses on analysing the consequences of artificial intelligence (AI) and robotics-based automation on industry and work, the related human-machine systems and human-computer interaction, and the need for policy to support a positive transition and mitigate the potential risks.

Albanesi, S., Dias da Silva, A., Jimeno, J., et al., European Central Bank, 2023.

The article examines the link between labour market developments and new technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI) and software in 16 European countries over the period 2011- 2019. Using data for occupations at the 3-digit level in Europe, we find that on average employment shares have increased in occupations more exposed to AI. This is particularly the case for occupations with a relatively higher proportion of younger and skilled workers. This evidence is in line with the Skill Biased Technological Change theory.

Cedefop, Skills empower workers in the AI revolution – First findings from Cedefop’s AI skills survey, Publications Office of the European Union, 2025

Artificial intelligence (AI) is the next general-purpose technology reshaping labour markets, jobs and skills. A lack of representative data makes it difficult to map AI use and its impact on jobs. This policy brief presents the first results of Cedefop’s 2024 AI skills survey. The survey shows that more than a quarter of the European adult workforce is already experimenting with the use of AI at work. With 6 in 10 employees susceptible to some form of AI-related task transformation, it is obvious that upskilling, reskilling and investing in AI literacy will be crucial drivers of a human-centred AI revolution.

European Commission: Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion, Khabirpour, N., Pelizzari, L., Limbers, J., Richiardi, M. et al., Study on poverty and income inequality in the context of the digital transformation – Final report. Part A, Ensuring a socially fair digital transformation, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

This study is made of two parts: part A and part B. Part A of the study analyses – through 27 country fiches – the extent to which each EU Member State is prepared for ensuring a socially fair digital transformation in the coming years, based on both its current situation and future prospects. In this analysis, key areas of focus include the labour market, digital skills of the population, social protection as well as cross-cutting dimensions, such as the digitalization level of businesses and the quality of digital infrastructures. Part B of the study reviews – through 30 case studies – some of the main actual and potential uses of digital technologies (including AI) by a country’s public sector for improving the design and the delivery of social benefits and active labour market policies, as well as for complementing the monitoring of poverty and income inequality (the case studies analysed are mainly in Member States but also in a few third countries).

European Commission: Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion, Khabirpour, N., Pelizzari, L., Limbers, J., Richiardi, M. et al., Study on poverty and income inequality in the context of the digital transformation – Final report. Part B, Use of digital technologies (including AI) by the public sector for improving the delivery and design of social policies and active labour market policies, as well as for complementing the monitoring of poverty and income inequality, Publications Office of the European Union, 2024.

This study is made of two parts: part A and part B. Part A of the study analyses – through 27 country fiches – the extent to which each EU Member State is prepared for ensuring a socially fair digital transformation in the coming years, based on both its current situation and future prospects. In this analysis, key areas of focus include the labour market, digital skills of the population, social protection as well as cross-cutting dimensions, such as the digitalization level of businesses and the quality of digital infrastructures. Part B of the study reviews – through 30 case studies – some of the main actual and potential uses of digital technologies (including AI) by a country’s public sector for improving the design and the delivery of social benefits and active labour market policies, as well as for complementing the monitoring of poverty and income inequality (the case studies analysed are mainly in Member States but also in a few third countries).

European Agency for Safety and Health at Work, 2024.

The aim of this study is to analyse the challenges posed by artificial intelligence based worker management (AIWM) systems in relation to psychosocial risks and the role of worker participation structures in identifying, assessing, preventing and mitigating psychosocial risks arising from AIWM. AIWM is ‘an umbrella term that refers to a worker management system that gathers data, often in real time, on the workspace, workers, the tasks they do, and the (digital) tools they use for their work, which is then fed into an AI-based model that makes automated or semi-automated decisions or provides information for decision-makers on worker management-related questions’.